6.1 What are the three ways we learn?

6.2 How do we learn by classical conditioning?

Ch. 6 Learning

6.4 How do we learn by watching others?

6.3 How do we learn by operant conditioning?

6.1 What Are the Three Ways We Learn? • Learning: a relatively enduring change in behavior due to experience – Central to almost all areas of human existence

We Learn From Experience

• Behaviorism: a formal learning theory from the early twentieth century – John Watson: focused on environment and associated effects as key determinants of learning – B. F. Skinner: designed animal experiments to discover basic rules of learning

We Learn From Experience

• • Critical for survival Adapt behaviors for a particular environment – Which sounds indicate potential danger?

– What foods are dangerous?

– When is it safe to sleep?

We Learn in Three Ways

1. Non-associative learning 2. Associative learning 3. By watching others • Let’s look at these on the following slides

We Learn in Three Ways

1. Non-associative learning: information about one external stimulus (e.g., a sight, smell, sound)

We Learn in Three Ways

• • 1a. Habituation: exposure to a stimulus for a long time, or repeatedly, leads to a decrease in behavioral response – Especially if the stimulus is neither harmful nor rewarding See Figure 6.2a on the next slide . . .

We Learn in Three Ways

We Learn in Three Ways

• • 1b. Sensitization: exposure to a stimulus over a long time, or repeatedly, leads to an increase in behavioral response – Heightened preparation in a situation with potential harm or reward See Figure 6.2b on the next slide . . .

We Learn in Three Ways

We Learn in Three Ways

• 2. Associative learning: understanding how two or more pieces of information are related

We Learn in Three Ways

• • 2a. Classical conditioning: learn that two stimuli go together – Example: music from scary movies elicits anxiousness when heard 2b. Operant conditioning: learn that a behavior leads to a particular outcome – Example: studying leads to better grades

We Learn in Three Ways

• 3. Learning by watching others – Observational learning – Modeling – Vicarious conditioning

The Brain Changes During Learning

• Long-term potentiation (LTP): the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons – Recall that “cells that fire together, wire together” – Exposure to environmental events causes changes in the brain to allow learning

6.1 What are the three ways we learn?

6.2 How do we learn by classical conditioning?

Ch. 6 Learning

6.4 How do we learn by watching others?

6.3 How do we learn by operant conditioning?

6.2 How Do We Learn By Classical Conditioning? • Familiar example: association between scary music in movies and bad things happening to characters

Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related • • • Pavlov: Nobel Prize in 1904 for research on the digestive system Observed dogs began to salivate as soon as they saw bowls of food – Salivating at sight of a bowl is not automatic – Behavior acquired through learning by association See Figure 6.3b on the next slide . . .

Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn Stimuli Are Related

Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning • Classical conditioning: learning begins with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response – Much like a reflex

Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning • • Four key steps: 1. Present unconditioned stimulus: evokes unlearned response 2. Present neutral stimulus: no response 3. Pair stimuli from Steps 1 and 2: learned response (conditioning trials) 4. Neutral stimulus alone will trigger learned response (critical trials) Let’s look at this on the next slide

Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning • Step 1: presenting food causes salivary reflex – Unconditioned stimulus (US): nothing is learned about the stimulus (e.g., food) – Unconditioned response (UR): an unlearned behavior, like a simple reflex (e.g., salivation)

Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning • Step 2: clicking metronome is neutral stimulus – Neutral stimulus: anything seen or heard; must not associate with the unconditioned response

Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning • Step 3 (conditioning trials): start of learning – Dog begins to associate US (food) and neutral stimulus (metronome)

Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning • • Step 4 (critical trials): association learned – Metronome alone, without food, makes dog salivate See Figure 6.3 on the next slide . . .

Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning • • Conditioned stimulus (CS): after conditioning, previously neutral stimulus (NS) reliably produces unconditioned response (UR) Conditioned response (CR): behavior only after conditioning; usually weaker than unconditioned response

Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning • • Animals adapt via conditioning Learning to predict outcomes leads to new adaptive behaviors

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery • • Acquisition: gradual formation of learned association between CS and US to produce CR – Strongest conditioning occurs when CS is presented slightly before US See Figure 6.5a on the next slide . . .

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery • • • Extinction: CS no longer predicts arrival of US Sometimes associations are no longer adaptive See Figure 6.5b on the next slide . . .

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery • • Spontaneous recovery: original association between CS and US is relearned • Can occur after only one pairing following extinction – Response will get weaken if CS-US pairings do not continue See Figure 6.5d on the next slide . . .

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning • • Stimulus generalization: stimuli similar, but not identical to, CS that produces CR – Animals respond to variations in CS See Figure 6.6 on the next slide . . .

Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning

Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning • • Stimulus discrimination: differentiate between similar stimuli; one is consistently associated with US and the other is not See Figure 6.7 on the next slide . . .

Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning

Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning • • Second-order conditioning: second CS becomes associated with first CS; elicits CR when presented alone Neither US nor original CS present – Example: pairing black square (second CS) with metronome (first CS) so black square produces salivation (CR) on its own

We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning • Phobia: acquired fear that is very strong in comparison to threat

The Case of Little Albert

• • • Classical conditioning demonstrated in phobias: – Showed “Little Albert” various neutral objects (e.g., white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, white wool) – Paired rat (CS) and loud clanging (US) until rat alone produced fear (CR) Fear generalized to all similar stimuli See Figure 6.8 on the next slide . . .

The Case of Little Albert

Counterconditioning

• Classical conditioning techniques valuable in treating phobias

Counterconditioning

• • Counterconditioning: exposing subject to phobia during an enjoyable task Systematic desensitization: exposure to feared stimulus while relaxing – CS -> CR 1 (fear) connection replaced with CS -> CR 2 (relaxation) connection

Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning • • Pavlov’s belief: any two events presented together would produce learned association By 1960s, data suggested that some conditioned stimuli more likely to produce learning

Evolutionary Influences

• Certain pairings more likely to be associated – Conditioned taste aversions: easy to produce with smell or taste cues – Auditory and visual stimuli: value for signaling danger

Cognitive Influences

• Through classical conditioning, animals predict events – Easier when CS before US rather than after US – Easier when CS is more unexpected or surprising

6.1 What are the three ways we learn?

6.2 How do we learn by classical conditioning?

Ch. 6: Learning

6.4 How do we learn by watching others?

6.3 How do we learn by operant conditioning?

6.3 How Do We Learn by Operant Conditioning? • • Human behaviors are purposeful Operant conditioning: relationship between behavior and consequences

We Learn Effects of Behavior Through Operant Conditioning • • Operant conditioning: animals operate on environments to produce effects Consequences determine likelihood of behavior in future

Thorndike’s Experiments Reveal the Effects of Action • • Thorndike’s puzzle box: challenged food deprived animals to find escape – Trap door would open if animal performed specific action – Animal quickly learned to repeat behavior to free itself and reach the food See Figure 6.10 on the next slide . . .

Thorndike’s Experiments Reveal the Effects of Action

Thorndike’s Experiments Reveal the Effects of Action • Thorndike’s general theory of learning – Law of effect: any behavior leading to a “satisfying state of affairs” likely to be repeated – Any behavior leading to an “annoying state of affairs” less likely to reoccur

Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning • • B. F. Skinner’s learning theory based on the law of effect: – Reinforcer: stimulus occurs after response and increases likelihood of response reoccurring Believed that behavior occurs because reinforced

Shaping

• • Shaping: operant-conditioning technique; reinforce behaviors increasingly similar to desired behavior See Figure 6.12 on the next slide . . .

Shaping

Reinforcers Can Be Conditioned

• • Primary reinforcers: satisfy biological needs, necessary for survival (e.g., food, water) Secondary reinforcers: serve as reinforcers, do not satisfy biological needs; established through classical conditioning

Reinforcer Potency

• • Some reinforcers are more powerful Premack principle: more valued activity can reinforce performance of less valued activity – Example: “Eat your spinach and then you’ll get dessert.”

Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement and punishment have opposite effects on behavior – Reinforcement: behavior more likely to be repeated – Punishment: behavior less likely to occur again

Positive and Negative Reinforcement • Both positive and negative reinforcement increase likelihood of a given behavior

Positive and Negative Reinforcement • • Positive reinforcement: addition of stimulus that increases probability behavior will reoccur – Example: feeding a rat after it has pressed a lever Negative reinforcement: removal of stimulus that increases likelihood of given behavior – Example: taking a pill to get rid of a headache

Positive and Negative Reinforcement • Both positive and negative punishment reduce likelihood that behavior will be repeated

Positive and Negative Reinforcement • • Positive punishment: addition of stimulus decreases probability of behavior being repeated – Example: electrical shock, speeding ticket Negative punishment: removal of stimulus decreases probability of behavior being repeated – Example: loss of food, loss of privileges

Schedules of Reinforcement

1. Continuous reinforcement: behavior reinforced each time it occurs – Fast learning, uncommon in real world 2. Partial reinforcement: behavior is occasionally reinforced – More common in real world

Schedules of Reinforcement

• • How reinforcement given x how consistently given = four common schedules 1. Fixed schedule: predictable basis 2. Variable schedule: unpredictable basis 3. Interval schedule: based on passage of time 4. Ratio schedule: based on number of responses See Figure 6.15 on the next slide . . .

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement

1. Fixed interval schedule (FI): reinforcement after fixed amount of time – Example: paycheck 2. Variable interval schedule (VI): reinforcement after unpredictable amount of time – Example: pop quiz – More consistent response rates than fixed interval

Schedules of Reinforcement

3. Fixed ratio schedule: reinforcement after fixed number of responses – Example: paid by the completed task – Often yields better response rates than fixed interval 4. Variable ratio schedule: reinforcement after variable number of responses – Example: slot machine

Schedules of Reinforcement

• •

Partial-reinforcement extinction effect:

behavior lasts longer under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement To condition behavior to persist: – Use continuous reinforcement initially – Slowly change to partial reinforcement

Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives • • Imagine a parent says no to a candy bar, so child throws a tantrum – Parent yells, “If you don’t stop screaming, you’re going to get a smacked bottom!” Will this approach get the desired behavior?

Parental Punishment Is Ineffective • To be effective, punishment must be: – Reasonable – Unpleasant – Applied immediately – Clearly connected to the unwanted behavior

Parental Punishment Is Ineffective • • • Punishment can cause confusion: – Wrongly applied after desirable behavior – Leads to negative emotions (e.g., fear, anxiety) – Fails to offset reinforcing aspects of the undesired behavior Reinforcement teaches desirable behavior See Figure 6.16 on the next slide . . .

Parental Punishment Is Ineffective

Behavior Modifications

• • Behavior modification: operant conditioning replaces unwanted behaviors with desirable behaviors Most unwanted behaviors can be unlearned

Behavior Modifications

• • Token economies: opportunity to earn tokens (secondary reinforcers) for completing tasks and lose tokens for behaving badly – Tokens later traded for objects or privileges Gives participants sense of control

Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning • • Behaviorists believed conditioning principles explained all behavior In reality, reinforcement explains only a certain amount of human behavior

Dopamine Activity Affects Reinforcement • Biological influence on how reinforcing something is – Drugs that block dopamine’s effects disrupt operant conditioning – Drugs that enhance dopamine activation increase reinforcing value of stimuli

Biology Constrains Reinforcement

• • – Some animal behaviors hardwired Difficult to learn behaviors counter to evolutionary adaptation Conditioning most effective when matched to animal’s biological predispositions

Learning Without Reinforcement

• Tolman argued that reinforcement impacts performance more than knowledge

acquisition

– Ran rats through complex mazes to obtain food – Cognitive map: maze-specific mental representation that Tolman believed each rat developed

Learning Without Reinforcement

• • Three groups of rats traveled maze – Group 1: no reinforcement – Group 2: reinforcement every trial – Group 3: reinforcement only after first 10 trials See Figure 6.19 on the next slide . . .

Learning Without Reinforcement

Learning Without Reinforcement

• • • • Latent learning: learning without reinforcement Group 1: slow, many wrong turns Group 2: faster, fewer errors each trial Group 3: – Before reinforcement, similar to Group 1 – After reinforcement, better than Group 2

Learning Without Reinforcement

• • Insight learning: solution suddenly emerges after delay; type of problem solving Reinforcement does not fully explain but predicts behavior’s repetition

6.1 What are the three ways we learn?

6.2 How do we learn by classical conditioning?

Ch. 6: Learning 6.4 How do we learn by watching others?

6.3 How do we learn by operant conditioning?

6.4 How Do We Learn by Watching Others? • • Behaviors we learn by watching others: – Mechanical skills, social etiquette, situational anxiety, attitudes about politics and religion Three ways we learn by watching: 1. Observational learning 2. Modeling 3. Vicarious conditioning

Three Ways We Learn Through Watching • • 1. Observational learning: individual acquires or changes behavior after viewing it at least once – Examples: foods safe to eat, objects and situations to fear Powerful adaptive tool See Figure 6.20 on next slide . . .

Three Ways We Learn Through Watching

Bandura’s Research Reveals Learning Through Observation • • Observation of aggression: Bandura’s Bobo doll study – Group 1: watched film of adult playing quietly with Bobo, an inflatable doll – Group 2: watched film of adult attacking Bobo Viewers of aggression were more than twice as likely to play aggressively

Learning Through Modeling • • 2. Modeling: imitation of observed behavior More likely to imitate actions of attractive, high-status models similar to ourselves See Figure 6.22 on the next slide . . .

Learning Through Modeling

Learning Through Vicarious Conditioning • 3. Vicarious conditioning: learning about consequences by watching others – Rewarded behavior more imitated – Punished behavior less imitated See Figure 6.23 on the next slide . . .

Learning Through Vicarious Conditioning

Watching Others Results in Cultural Transmission • • Meme: shared piece of cultural knowledge – Similar to genes, selectively passed across generations, can spread much faster – Animals also show this kind of knowledge sharing See Figure 6.24 on the next slide . . .

Watching Others Results in Cultural Transmission

Biology Influences Observational Learning • • Mirror neurons: fire in your brain and other person’s brain every time you watch them engaging in an action – Does not always lead to imitation Scientists still debating mirror neurons’ function