Transcript Biology EOC Review - Ms. Whitt's Science Classes

Biology EOC Review
Questions 1-13
Science Methods
•
•
•
•
•
Steps used to solve a problem
Observation
Questioning and stating problems
Hypothesizing
Experimenting – including a control and experimental group
IV – independent variable
DV – dependent variable
• Tables and Graphs
• IV on x-axis and DV on y-axis of a graph
Ex) Effects of pH on Tadpole Survival
IV – pH
DV-Number of Tadpoles
Theories and laws
• In science, a hypothesis that is supported
by many separate observations and
investigations, usually over a long period
of time, becomes a theory.
• A theory is an explanation of a natural
phenomenon that is supported by a large body of
scientific evidence.
•In addition to theories, scientists also recognize certain
facts of nature, called laws or principles, that are generally
known to be true.
• All the living organisms that inhabit an
environment are called biotic factors.
• Examples of biotic factors would be grass,
trees, fish, birds, insects and worms.
• The nonliving parts of an organism’s
environment are the abiotic factors.
• Examples of abiotic factors include air
currents, temperature, moisture, light, and
soil.
Ecology
•
Ecology – is the study of interactions between organisms
and the environment
• Levels of Organization
BiosphereBiomesEcosystem
CommunityPopulationOrganism
•
•
We study an organisms habitat, niche, and trophic level
Populations – are members of the same species living in
the same place at the same time with the potential to
interbreed
Population growth – exponential (J-shape) and logistic (SShape)
* Limited by factors like disease and competition that are
density-dependent or by density-independent factors
like natural disaster.
* Carrying capacity is seen in logistic growth – the
maximum number the environment can support
Community Interactions
* Competition – intraspecific (same species) or
interspecific (diff sp)
* Symbiosis – parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism
* Succession – both primary (bare rock) and secondary
(soil)
Ecosystem Level – food chains and webs and matter recycling
Energy and trophic levels: Ecological pyramids
• The pyramid of
energy illustrates
that the amount
of available
energy decreases
at each
succeeding
trophic level.
Pyramid of Energy
Heat
Heat
0.1% Consumers
1% Consumers
10% Consumers
Heat
Heat
100%
Producers
Water Cycle
Condensation
Transpiration
Precipitation
Runoff
Evaporation
Evaporation
Groundwater
The Carbon Cycle
Ranges of tolerance
• The ability of an organism to withstand
fluctuations in biotic and abiotic
environmental factors is known as tolerance.
Limits of Tolerance
Organisms
absent
Organisms
infrequent
Population
Greatest number
of organisms
Zone of
Zone of
Physiological
intolerance
stress
Optimum range
Organisms
infrequent
Organisms
absent
Zone of
Zone of
Physiological intolerance
stress
Range of tolerance
Lower limit
Upper limit
Freshwater biomes
Colder layer
Least
light penetration
Warmer layer
Oxygen and
Greatest
Greatest
species
diversity
How covalent bonds form
• A covalent
bond holds the
two hydrogen
atoms together.
• A molecule is a
group of atoms
held together by
covalent bonds.
It has no overall
charge.
Water
molecule
Mixtures and Solutions
• A solution is a mixture in which one or more
substances (solutes) are distributed evenly in
another substance (solvent).
• Sugar molecules
in a powdered
drink mix
dissolve easily in
water to form a
solution.
1. Water is Polar
• A polar molecule is a molecule with an
unequal distribution of charge; that is,
each molecule has a positive end and a
negative end.
• Water is an example of a polar molecule.
• Water can dissolve many ionic
compounds, such as salt, and many other
polar molecules, such as sugar.
Water is Polar
• Water molecules also attract other water
molecules.
Hydrogen atom
• Weak hydrogen
bonds are formed
between positively
charged hydrogen
atoms and negatively
charged oxygen
atoms.
Hydrogen atom
Oxygen atom
2. Water resists temperature changes
• Water resists changes in temperature.
Therefore, water requires more heat to
increase its temperature than do most other
common liquids.
3. Water expands when it freezes
• Water is one of the
few substances that
expands when it
freezes.
• Ice is less dense
than liquid water so
it floats as it forms
in a body of water.
Questions 14-21
Biomolecules
Biomolecule
Composition
Functions
Carbohydrates Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Sugars, starches
Store and release energy
Lipids
Carbon, hydrogen, some
oxygen
Fats, oils and waxes
Stores energy, protects, membranes
Proteins
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, some sulfur
Structure for tissue and organs
Nucleic Acids
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus
RNA and DNA
Stores cellular information
Enzymes
• An enzyme is a protein that changes the rate of a
chemical reaction.
•
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_enzymes_work.html
Enzymes
An increase in the
concentration, pH and
temperature will cause the
rate of reaction of the
enzyme to speed up.
The cell theory is made up of three main
ideas:
All organisms are composed of one or
more cells.
The cell is the basic unit of
organization of organisms.
All cells come from preexisting
cells.
Prokaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic Cell
Transport proteins form the selectively
permeable membrane and move needed
substances or waste materials through the
plasma membrane.
Eukaryotic Cell Structures
Cell Part
Function
Cell Wall
Support and Protection
Cell Membrane
Maintain homeostasis by allowing some things in and keeps other things out
Cytoplasm
Clear fluid that is the site of chemical reactions and suspends organelles
Nucleus
Contains DNA, codes for all functions of cell
Nuclear Envelope
Surrounds the nucleus
Nucleolus
Produces ribosomes
Chromatin
Loose DNA material, contains genetic code
Ribosomes
Site of protein synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Site of cellular chemical reactions
Microtubules
Support- hollow cylinders
Microfilaments
Support - solid protein fibers
Vacuoles
Membrane bound structures used for temporary storage
Mitochondria
Site of cellular respiration – transforms energy
Golgi Apparatus
Sorts, stacks, and stores proteins
Chloroplasts
Captures light energy to produce carbohydrates
Lysosomes
Contain digestive enzymes
Cilia
Hair-like projections that move in a wavelike motion
flagella
Long projections that move in a whip-like motion
Transport Through the Cell Membrane
Type of
Transport
Transport Direction of
Protein
Movement
Used?
Requires
Classification
Energy
of Transport
Input from
Cell?
Simple Diffusion
No
No
Passive
Facilitated
Diffusion
Yes
Channel
proteins or
carrier
proteins
Yes
Carrier
proteins
With
concentration
gradient
With
concentration
gradient
No
Passive
Against
concentration
gradient
Yes
Active
Active Transport
Questions 22.27
The Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle is the sequence of growth and
division of a cell.
• The majority of a cell’s life is spent in the
growth period known as interphase.
• Following interphase, a cell enters its period
of nuclear division called mitosis.
• Following mitosis,
cytokinesis occurs
which is when the
Interphase
cytoplasm divides,
separating the two
daughter cells.
Mitosis
cytokinesis
Mitosis
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
• Chromatin
coils
• Spindle fibers
form
• Nuclear
envelope
disappears
• Spindle fibers
attach to the
centromeres
• Chromosomes
move to the
equator
• Centromeres
split
• Sister
chromatids
are pulled
apart to
opposite
poles of the
cell
• Two distinct
daughter cells are
formed
• Nuclear membrane
reforms
• Cells separate as the
cell cycle proceeds
into the next
interphase
Mendel’s Laws
The law of segregation states that every
individual has two alleles of each gene and when
gametes are produced, each gamete receives one
of these alleles.
The law of independent assortment states that
genes for different traits—for example, seed
shape and seed color—are inherited
independently of each other.
Prophase I:
• Chromatin
coils
• Spindle fibers
form
• Nuclear
envelope
disappears
• Crossing over
occurs
Metaphase I:
• Spindle fibers
attach to the
centromeres
• Homologous
chromosomes
move to the
equator
Anaphase I:
• Chromosomes
are pulled
apart to
opposite poles
of the cell
Telophase I:
• Two distinct
daughter cells
are formed
• Nuclear
membrane
reforms
Cells
immediately go
into Meiosis II
Prophase II:
• Chromatin
coils
• Spindle fibers
form
• Nuclear
envelope
disappears
Metaphase II:
• Spindle fibers
attach to the
centromeres
• Chromosomes
move to the
equator
Anaphase II:
• Centromeres
split
• Sister
chromatids
are pulled
apart to
opposite
poles of the
cell
Telophase II:
• 4 haploid
cells are
formed
• Nuclear
membrane
reforms
• Cells
separate
Questions 28-37
Crossing Over Diagram
What is Meiosis?
Haploid gametes
(n=23)
Meiosis
This pattern of reproduction,
involving the production and
subsequent fusion of haploid
sex cells, is called sexual
reproduction.
Sperm Cell
Meiosis
Egg Cell
Fertilization
Diploid zygote
(2n=46)
Mitosis and
Development
Multicellular
diploid adults
(2n=46)
Inheritance
• Mendel concluded that each
organism has two factors that
control each of its traits.
• We now know that these
factors are genes and that they
are located on chromosomes
• Genes exist in alternative
forms. We call these different
gene forms alleles.
• Mendel called the observed
trait dominant and the trait
that disappeared recessive.
T
T
t
T
t
t
T
t
Phenotypes and Genotypes
• The way an organism looks and behaves is
called its phenotype.
• The allele combination an organism contains
is known as its genotype.
• An organism’s genotype can’t always be
known by its phenotype
• An organism is homozygous for a trait if its
two alleles for the trait are the same.
• An organism is heterozygous for a trait if its
two alleles for the trait differ from each other.
Monohybrid crosses
Heterozygous
tall parent
T
T
T t
t
t
T
t
T
T
TT
Tt
t
t
Tt
tt
Heterozygous
tall parent
Resulting genotypes: TT, Tt, and tt
Resulting phenotypes: 3 tall, 1 short
The two kinds of
gametes from one
parent are listed
on top of the
square, and the
two kinds of
gametes from the
other parent are
listed on the left
side.
Dihybrid crosses
Punnett Square of Dihybrid Cross
Gametes from RrYy parent
Ry
RY
RRYY
RRYy
Gametes from RrYy parent
RY
Ry
rY
ry
RrYY
RrYy
RRYy
RRYy
RrYy
Rryy
RrYY
RrYy
rrYY
rrYy
rrYy
rryy
rY
RrYy
ry
Rryy
A Punnett square for a
dihybrid cross will need to
be four boxes on each side
for a total of 16 boxes.
Questions 38-39
Questions 40-42
Questions 43-47
Origin of Life on Earth
Simple organic molecules formed
Scientists hypothesize that two developments
must have preceded the appearance of life on
Earth.
1. simple organic molecules, or molecules
that contain carbon, must have formed.
2. Then these molecules must have become
organized into complex organic
molecules such as proteins,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids that
are essential to life.
A protocell is a large, ordered structure, enclosed by a
membrane, that carries out some life activities, such
as growth and division.
The first forms of life may have been prokaryotic forms
that evolved from a protocell.
Because Earth’s atmosphere lacked oxygen, scientists
have proposed that these organisms were most
likely anaerobic.
The first autotrophs were probably similar to presentday archaebacteria.
The Endosymbiont Theory
Complex eukaryotic cells probably evolved
from prokaryotic cells.
The endosymbiont theory,proposed by
American biologist Lynn Margulis in the
early 1960s, explains how eukaryotic cells
may have arisen.
The endosymbiont theory proposes that
eukaryotes evolved through a symbiotic
relationship between ancient prokaryotes.
The endosymbiont theory
A prokaryote ingested
some aerobic bacteria.
The aerobes were
protected and
produced energy for
the prokaryote.
Aerobic bacteria
Over a long time,
the aerobes become
mitochondria, no
longer able to live on
their own.
Mitochondria
Some primitive
prokaryotes also
ingested cyanobacteria,
which contain
photosynthetic
pigments.
Cyanobacteria
The
cyanobacteria
become
chloroplasts, no
longer able to live
on their own.
Chloroplasts
Plant cell
Prokaryote
Animal Cell
Chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes and
they reproduce independently of the cells that contain them
Anatomy
• Structural features with a common evolutionary
origin are called homologous structures.
Crocodile
forelimb
Whale
forelimb
Bird
wing
• Homologous
structures can be
similar in
arrangement, in
function, or in both.
Anatomy
• The body parts of organisms that do not have a
common evolutionary origin but are similar in
function are called analogous structures.
For example, insect and bird wings probably evolved separately when
their different ancestors adapted independently to similar ways of life.
Anatomy
• Another type of body feature
that suggests an evolutionary
relationship is a vestigial
structure —a body structure
in a present-day organism that
no longer serves its original
purpose, but was probably
useful to an ancestor.
• Vestigial structures, such as pelvic bones in the baleen whale,
are evidence of evolution because they show structural change
over time.
• Darwin observed that the traits of individuals vary
in populations. Variations are then inherited.
• Breeding organisms with specific traits in order to
produce offspring with identical traits is called
artificial selection.
• Natural selection is a mechanism for change in
populations. This occurs when organisms with
favorable variations survive, reproduce, and pass
their variations to the next generation.
• Organisms without these variations are less likely
to survive and reproduce.
Questions 48-58
Medulla Oblongata
• The cerebral cortex controls voluntary
movement and cognitive functions
• Each side of the cerebral cortex has four lobes
– Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Speech
Frontal
association
area
Somatosensory
association
area
Taste
Reading
Speech
Hearing
Smell
Auditory
association
area
Visual
association
area
Vision
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe
1. Aorta
2. Anterior Vena Cava
3. Posterior Vena Cava
4. Right Atrium
5. Left Atrium
6. Pulmonary Artery
7. Pulmonary Vein
8. Right Ventricle
9. Left Ventricle
10. AV valve
11. Septum
12. SL valve
Blood’s path through the heart
• The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood
from the lungs through four pulmonary
Superior
veins.
vena cava
Pulmonary
artery
Pulmonary
vein
Capillaries
Right lung
Aorta
LA
RA
LV
RV
Inferior
vena cava
Left lung
Blood pressure
• Blood pressure is the force that the blood
exerts on the blood vessels.
• Blood pressure rises and falls as the heart
contracts and then relaxes.
• Blood pressure rises sharply when the
ventricles contract, pushing blood through
the arteries.
Skin and body secretions
• The body’s earliest lines of defense
against any and all pathogens make up
your nonspecific, innate immunity
•Intact skin is a formidable physical barrier
to the entrance of microorganisms.
• In addition to the skin,
pathogens also encounter
your body’s secretions of
mucus, oil, sweat, tears,
and saliva.
Acquired Immunity
Non-specific Immune Response
• This acquired immune response enables
these white blood cells to inactivate or
destroy the pathogen.
• Defending against a specific pathogen
by gradually building up a resistance to
it is called acquired immunity.
Passive Immunity
• Artificial passive immunity
involves injecting into the
body antibodies that come
from an animal or a human
who is already immune to
the disease.
Active Immunity
Recommended Childhood Immunizations
Immunization
Agent
Protection Against
Acellular DPT or Tetrammune Bacteria
Diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough),
tetanus (lockjaw)
MMR
Virus
Measles, mumps, rubella
OPV
Virus
Poliomyelitis (polio)
HBV
Virus
Hepatitis B
HIB or Tetrammune
Bacteria
Haemophilis influenza B (spinal meningitis)
Treating Diseases
• An antibiotic is a substance produced by a
microorganism that, in small amounts, will
kill or inhibit the growth and reproduction of
other microorganisms, especially bacteria.
• Although antibiotics can
be used to cure some
bacterial infections,
antibiotics do not have
an affect on viruses.
Bladder
Seminal Vesicle
Prostrate Gland
Vas Deferens
Urethra
Scrotum
Penis
Epididymis
testicle
Male Reproductive Structures
Male Reproductive Anatomy
Seminal Vesicles: posterior to the urinary bladder; secrete
yellowish viscous alkaline fluid containing fructose, vitamin C,
and coagulating enzymes
Prostate Gland: inferior to the urinary bladder; produces milky
white fluid which activates sperm
Vas deferens: tubes that transport sperm from the testes to the
ejaculatory ducts
Urethra: tube that passes urine and semen out of the body.
Epididymis: superior to each testis; tubular (5-6 m); maturate
sperm
Scrotum: pouch of skin that holds the testes. Scrotal skin
lengthens and shrinks to maintain sperm temperature
Penis: semen delivery
Testes: produce male sperm and testosterone
Female Reproductive Structures
• Ovaries: Production
of eggs
• Oviduct (fallopian
tube): transports the
egg from the ovary
to the uterus
• Uterus: organ in
which the egg will
implant and the
embryo will grow
• Cervix: lower end of
the uterus
• Vagina: Birth Canal
First trimester: Organ systems form
• During the first trimester,
all the organ systems of
the embryo begin to form.
•By the eighth week, all
the organ systems have
been formed, and the
embryo is now referred
to as a fetus.
Second trimester: A time of growth
• Growth is rapid during the fourth month, but
then slows by the beginning of the fifth month.
• During the fifth month, fetal movements
can be felt by the mother. In the sixth month
of development, the fetus’s eyes open and
eyelashes form.
•The fetus’s metabolism cannot yet maintain
a constant body temperature, and its lungs
have not matured enough to provide a
regular respiratory rate.
Third trimester: Continued growth
• During the last trimester, the mass of the
fetus more than triples.
• During the eighth month, fat is deposited
beneath the skin, which will help insulate
the newborn.
• By the end of the third trimester the fetus
can sustain life outside the mother.
Delivery