Transcript RESEARCH METHODS PAD 215 - Federal Polytechnic, Oko

RESEARCH METHODS
PAD 215
COURSE OUTLINE
1. The Concept of Research (other methods of
acquiring knowledge, various definitions,
scientific
research,
characteristics,
objectives, motivation, significance).
2. Typologies and the processes of research
(typology based on application, purpose and
mode of inquiry) and a diagrammatical
representation of research process.
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Course Outline Contd
 Defining the research problem
 Review of the literature
 Formulation
hypothesis and
generation
of
research
questions/propositions
 Understanding Research Design
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Course Outline Contd
 Sampling and Sampling Techniques
 Methods of Data Collection
 Measurements, Scaling and Scales
 Validity and Reliability of Measuring
Instruments
 Data Processing and Analysis
 Historical Method of Research
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Course Outline Contd
 Research Report Writing
 How to Write A Good Research Proposal
 How to Write an Effective Abstract
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Recommended Books
 Chiamogu, P.A. and Onwughalu, V.C.
(2014). Foundations of Research
Methodology: Expositions and
Applications. Enugu: Academic Publishers
 Babbie, E., Halley, F.S., Wagner, W.E. &
Zaino, J. (2013). Adventures in Social
Research: Data Analysis Using IBM SPSS
Statistics. London: Sage.
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Recommended Books Contd
 Kumar, R. (2012). Research Methodology: A Step-by-
Step Guide for Beginners, 3rd Edition. London: Sage.
 Kerlinger, F.N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioural
Research. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
 Akuezuilo, E. O. and Agu, N. (2003). Research and
statistics in education and social sciences: Methods
and applications. Nimo: Rex Charles and Patrick Ltd
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Recommended Books Contd
 Babbie, E. and Mouton, J. (2011). The Practice of
Social Research, South African Edition. Cape Town:
Oxford University Press, South Africa.
 Obasi, I.N. (1999). Research Methodology in
Political Science. Enugu: Academic Publishers.
 Osuala, E.C. (1985). Introduction to Research
Methodology. Onitsha: Africana-Fep.
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Research: A Process of Seeking
Knowledge and other methods
 Intuition: the use of common sense in identifying
the truth
 Authority/faith/fideism: accepting something to be
true because it is coming from an expert or
somebody/source that is accepted to be reliable or
based on religious belief
 Rationalism: knowledge based on reasoning
 Empiricism: based on experience
 Science (induction & deduction) then scientific
research
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The Concept of Research
Research has been variously defined. Some Primary
Definitions by scholars include:
1. Burns (2000: 2) defines research as ‘a
systematic investigation to find answers to a
problem’. By this submission, whenever
somebody embarks upon an investigation
following laid down procedures that another
person can replicate, he is involved in
research.
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Concept of Research Contd
 Kerlinger (1964: 13) succinctly avers that
‘scientific research is a systematic, controlled
empirical and critical investigation of
propositions about the presumed relationships
about various phenomena’. This definition
presupposes a regulated and process-oriented
inquiry into association or otherwise between
two or more variables or social
situations/problems.
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The Concept of Research Contd
1. Redman and Mory (1923:10) define research as a
“systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” They point
out an aspect of the importance of research that sometimes
seems to be forgotten. This position is predicated on the
notion that research grants practitioners opportunities of
establishing new approaches and models when they adopt
known procedures in examining existing knowledge and
belief. Yes, environment and other factors including time
might influence the position of some truism, principles and
approaches such that when carefully studied would give rise
to new models and information leading to new belief, etc.
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The Concept of Research Contd
 Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing
stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the
pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation,
comparison and experiment. In short, the search for
knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic
approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a
theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to
the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data,
analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in
the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in
certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
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Key Characteristics of Research
 Systematic
 Replicable/Verifiable
 Control
 Rigorous/Critical
 Recording
 Objective/Lack of bias
 Operationalization
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Objectives of Research
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To discover new facts
To find answers to questions or solutions to problems
To verify and test important facts
To analyze an event or process or phenomenon
To identify the cause and effect relationship between
variables
 To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories
to solve and understand scientific and non scientific
problems
 To find solutions to scientific, non scientific and social
problems and
 To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our
everyday life.
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Research Motivations
 Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems
initiates research;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative
work;
 Desire to be of service to society;
 Desire to earn promotion amongst lecturers;
 Desire to get respectability.
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Typologies of Research
We shall categorize all forms of research in three, viz:
1. Application (pure/basic and Applied Research
2. Purpose and Objective (descriptive, exploratory,
explanatory, correlational, etc)
3. Mode/method of Inquiry (structured and
unstructured or quantitative and qualitative
researches)
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Diagrammatical Representation of
the Typologies of Research
From the viewpoint
Application
Pure Research
Applied
Research
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Enquiry Mode
Objectives
Descriptive
Research
Exploratory
Research
Correlational
Research
Explanatory
Research
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Quantitative
Research
Qualitative
Research
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Diagrammatical Representation of
the Research Process
The research process
considerations
and steps in
formulating a
research problem
reseresearch
problem
Literature
review
Formulating
a research
problem
Research design
function
Conceptualising
a research
design
Method and tools
of data collection
Constructing an
instrument for
data collection
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Selecting a
sample
Methods of data
processing use of
computers and
statistics
Writing a
research
proposal
Validity and
reliability of the
research tool
Collecting
data
Editing
of the
data
Field test of
the research
tool
Study designs
Variables and
hypotheses: definition
and typology
Sampling theory
and designs
Principles of
scientific writing
Processing
data
Writing a
research
report
Coding
Operational
steps
Developing
a code book
Contents of the
research proposal
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Required
theoretical knowledge
Required
intermediary knowledge
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Defining the Research Problem
A research problem, in general, refers to some
difficulty or challenge which the researcher
experiences. It may be existing in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situation and s/he
wants to find an appropriate solution to it.
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Guides to Selecting a Research
Problem
 students are advised to avoid working on over
stretched areas: areas that have become over
flogged
 Avoid controversial topics/areas
 Avoid too narrow and ambiguous areas/topics
 Selected subjects should be familiar, feasible and
plausible
 Select subjects that are relevant and related to your
discipline
 Consider cost and timing factors in selecting your
area of interest
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Techniques involved in defining a
research problem
 The techniques for this purpose involve taking the
following steps generally one after the other:
 statement of the problem in a general way;
 understanding the nature of the problem;
 surveying the available literature
 developing the ideas through discussions; and
 rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition
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Sources of Research Problems
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One’s or personal interest
Personal experiences or observations
Course of study or area of study
Lecturer(s)/Supervisor(s)
Literature survey: Textbooks, Journals, Encyclopedia,
Reference Books, Newspaper and Magazines,
Periodicals,
Internet browsing
Media reports
Contemporary issues
Membership of particular group
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The Review of Literature
A literature review is a survey of everything that has
been written about a particular topic, theory, or
research question. It may provide the background
for larger work, or it may stand on its own. Much
more than a simple list of sources, an effective
literature review analyzes and synthesizes
information about key themes or issues.
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Importance of Review of the
Literature
 One of the early steps in planning a research work is
to review research done previously in the particular
area of interest and relevant area, quantitative and
qualitative analysis of this research usually gives the
researcher, inquirer or student an indication of the
direction.
 It is very essential for every investigator to be up-to-
date in his information about the literature, related
to his own problem already done by others. It is
considered the most important prerequisite to
actual planning and conducting the study.
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Importance of Review of
Literature Contd
 It avoids the replication of the study of findings to take
an advantage from similar or related literature as
regards, to methodology, techniques of data collection,
procedure adopted and conclusions drawn. S/he can
justify his own endeavour in the field.
 It provides as source of problem of study, an analogy
may be drawn for identifying and selecting one's own
problem of research. The researcher formulates his
hypothesis on the basis of review of literature. It also
provides the rationale for the study. The results and
findings of the study can also be discussed at length.
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Importance of Review of
Literature Contd
 The review of literature indicates the clear picture
of the problem to be solved. The scholarship in the
field can be developed by reviewing the literature in
the field.
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Objectives of Review of Literature
 To find out what is already known, what others have attempted to
find out, what methods of attack have been promising or
disappointing and what problems remain to be solved, passing
through the previous studies, literature, discussion and experience
related to a problems under investigation must precede any well
planned research study;
 To enable the researcher to define the limits of his field: Review
helps the researcher to delimit and define his problem. The
knowledge of related literature makes the researcher up-to-date on
the work which others have done. It enables him to state the
objectives clearly and concisely;
 It provides theories, ideas, explanations or hypothesis which may
prove useful in the formulation of a new problem.
 It indicates whether the evidence already available solves the
problem adequately without requiring further investigation. It
facilitates the avoidance of replication.
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Objectives of Review of Literature
Contd
 It provides the sources for hypothesis. The researcher
can formulate research hypothesis on the basis of
available studies.
 It suggests method, procedure, sources of data and
statistical techniques appropriate to the solution of the
problem.
 It locates comparative data and findings useful in the
interpretation and discussion of results. The
conclusions drawn in the related studies may be
significantly compared and may be used as the subject
for the findings of the study.
 It helps in developing experts and general scholarship
of the investigator in the area of study.
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Principles and Procedures for
Review of Literature
 It is generally advisable to get first and overall view by consulting a
general source, such as a textbook which is more likely to provide
the meaning and nature of the concepts and variables or theoretical
framework of the field. The logical starting point is to get a clear
picture of the problem to be solved. A text-book usually provides
the theoretical aspects of the problem. It is very essential to develop
deep understanding about the variables and the field.
 After developing the insight about the general nature of his
problem, the investigator should review the empirical researches of
the area. The best reference for this phase reference books like the
handbook of research. Encyclopedia of Educational Research, the
Review of Educational Research and International Abstracts for
more up-to-date findings depending on the level of the
investigator’s operation and education. The researcher’s major
concern at this point should be to get a clear picture of the field as a
whole; specific details are important at this stage. He should start
from a topical outline and a temperature set of classifications, so
that whatever he reads can be made meaningful.
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Principles and Procedures Contd
 The research for library material must be systematic and
thorough. The investigator generally should start by
collecting his references from the educational index. When
a large number of references are to be copied, they should
be typed because precision is required here.
 The researcher should take note systematically in the light
of such criteria as uniformity, accuracy and ease of assembly.
The notes should be taken on the card. Each entry should
be made separately; references should be recorded with
complete bibliographic data. It should be recorded on front
side of the card and content should be taken below and
reverse side of it. Each note should be recorded carefully
and accurately.
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Principles and Procedures Contd
 The investigator should take as complete notes as he
might need. On the other hand, taking unnecessary
notes is wasteful. The useful and necessary material
should be recorded precisely. It would be better that
similar sources are gathered.
 It is necessary that a general education of each source,
rather than simply a summary of its content be made.
Such evaluation is necessary both in presenting the
study in the review of literature, and in using the study
as background for the interpretation of the findings of
the study.
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Principles and Procedures Contd
 A major pre-requisite for effective library work is the ability
to read at high speed. This can only be developed through
practice. He must learn to skim material to see what it has
to contribute to the study, only after its reference has been
established, it should be read in detail. Surveying the
literature for the purpose of conducting research is not just
‘a pleasant excursion in the wonderful world of books’, it is a
precise and exacting task of locating specific information
for the specific purpose.
 The actual note-taking process is always a difficult task for
the researcher. He has to spend long hours in the library
taking notes by hand. It is a very tedious job and leads to
importance to carelessness and illegibility. He should make
use of the facilities available in the library for this purpose.
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Sources for Review of Literature
 books
 Government publications
 Periodicals/Journals
 Annual reports
 The internet
 Theses/desertations
 Abstracts
 Reference Materials
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Types of Review of Literature
 Argumentative review
 Integrative review
 Historical review
 Methodological review
 Systematic review
 Theoretical review
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Common mistakes in review of
literature
 Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research
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problem;
You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant
sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem;
Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including
relevant primary research studies or data;
Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as
valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design
and analysis;
Does not describe the search procedures that were used in the literature
review;
Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chisquared or meta-analytic methods; and,
Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider
contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.
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Research Design
 Research design deals with decisions regarding
what, where, when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute
a research design. Thus, a research design is the
plan for research. It provides guidelines which
direct the researcher towards solving the research
problem and it may vary depending on the nature of
the problem being studied (Akuezuilo and Agu,
2002:50).
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Meaning of Research Design
Contd
 Cooper and Schindler (2001) define research design
as the blue print for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data. It aids the inquirer in the
allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial
choices. In other words, a research design is the
arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.
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Characteristics of Research Design
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be
used for gathering and analyzing the data.
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since
most studies are done under these two constraints.
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Functions of Research Design
 It provides a researcher with a blue print for studying
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research problems.
It specifies the methods and procedures for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
It provides the boundaries of research activity and enables
the investigator to channel his energies in specific direction.
It enables the investigator to anticipate potential problems
in the implementation of the study.
It helps to provide some estimate of the cost of the research,
possible measurement problems and the optimal allocation
of resources.
It helps in research proposals to demonstrate
diagrammatically, how the variable of the proposed research
will be observed, controlled, or manipulated to generate
necessary primary data for a study.
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Types of Research Design
 Historical
 Descriptive (survey, correlational, case studies, expo
facto and development studies)
 Experimental (True and Quasi-experimental)
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Sample and Sampling Techniques
Sampling may be defined as the selection of some
part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which
a judgment or inference about the aggregate or
totality is made. In other words, it is the process of
obtaining information about an entire population
by examining only a part of it.
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Definition of Sampling
This is the process of selecting a unit of a whole to
form the basis for a study. It can assume varied
forms and dimensions
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Need for Sampling
 Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less
expensive than a census study and produces results at a relatively faster
speed.
 Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is
generally conducted by trained and experienced investigators.
 Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many
members.
 Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of
the item under study.
 Sampling usually enables researchers to estimate the sampling errors and,
thus, assists in obtaining information concerning some characteristic of
the population.
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Steps in sample design
 Type of universe: The first step in developing any
sample design is to clearly define the set of objects,
technically called the Universe, to be studied.
 Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken
concerning a sampling unit before selecting a
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one
like a local government area, community, etc., or a
social unit such as family, association, church, etc.,
or even an individual.
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Steps in sample design contd
 Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from
which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of
all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If
source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it.
Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable
and appropriate. It is extremely important for the
source list to be as representative of the population as
possible.
 Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to
be selected from the universe to constitute a sample.
This is a major problem before a researcher. The size of
sample should neither be excessively large, nor too
small.
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Steps to sample design contd
 Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from
practical point of view, have a major impact upon
decisions relating to not only the size of the sample
but also to the type of sample. This fact can even
lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
 Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must
decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must
decide about the technique to be used in selecting
the items for the sample.
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Characteristics of a good Sample
Design
 Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
 Sample design must be such which results in a small
sampling error.
 Sample design must be viable in the context of funds
available for the research study.
 Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way.
 Sample should be such that the results of the sample study
can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable
level of confidence.
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Types of Sample Design
 Probability (based on random selection of units of a
universe or population. It grants all units equal
opportunities of being selected to be studied)
 Non-Probability is based on the choice and
judgment of the researcher. It thus does not allow
all units/items of the population equal chances of
being selected for the study
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Non-probability Sampling
techniques
 Quota
 Convenience
 Expert
 Snowball
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Probability Sampling Techniques
 Random
 Systematic
 Stratified
 Cluster
 Multi-stage
 Proportional
 Sequential
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Methods of Data Collection
 Data could be described as facts, ideas, views,
interests, values, opinions, etc obtained in the
course of investigation or accumulated in the
process research activities; or information given
from which other facts may be worked out. It could
also be explained as facts, observations or
information in isolation and relating to the subjects
of the study.
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Types of Data
We have 2 main types/sources of data; viz:
 Primary data: These are data that are collected afresh
and for the first time, and thus, happen to be original in
character. In other words, all data collected for a specific
purpose by the researcher from the field are known as
primary data.
 Secondary data: These are data that have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been
passed through the statistical process. There are data
collected for some other purposes and possibly
analyzed by someone else, therefore, secondary data is
an existing data set
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Features of Data
 Data may be primary or ‘original’ in the sense that,
information that has never been collected before is
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collected.
Data could be secondary, in the sense that, information
already put together by someone else is reused, perhaps
in a different way by another person.
Data may be numerical.
Data may consist of words.
Data may be a combination of figures and words.
Data may consist of responses to a questionnaire or
interview transcriptions, notes or other records of
observations or experiments, documents and materials,
or all.
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Selection of appropriate method
for data collection
There are various methods of data collection; as a result, the
researcher must judiciously select the method/methods appropriate
for his own study, keeping in view with the following factors:
 Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most
important factor affecting the choice of a particular method. The
method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that
is to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in
deciding whether the data already available (secondary data) are to
be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be
collected.
 Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project
determines to a large extent the method to be used for the
collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are
very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method
which may not be as efficient and effective as some other costly
method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the
researcher has to act within this limitation.
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Selection of appropriate method
for data collection Contd
 Time factor: Availability of time has also to be
taken into account in deciding a particular method
of data collection. Some methods take relatively
more time, whereas with others the data can be
collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The
time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects
the selection of the method by which the data are to
be collected.
 Precision required: Precision required is yet
another important factor to be considered at the
time of selecting the method of collection of data.
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Methods of Collecting Primary
Data
There are several methods of collecting primary data, namely:
Questionnaire, Interviews, Observations, and Schedules.
1. Questionnaires: A questionnaire could be regarded as a set
of questions relating to the aims and objectives of the study
to which respondents (the sample) are required to answer
by writing in their responses. Thus, a questionnaire may be
defined simply as a data gathering instrument in which
respondents are given standardized or uniformed questions.
It is used when factual information is desired, and is usually
used to obtain facts about the past, present and anticipated
events, and also about the prevailing conditions and
practices. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions
printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms.
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly
in case of big enquiries.
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Guides to Drafting questionnaires
 The researcher must pay attention to the following points in
constructing an appropriate and effective questionnaire:
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 On the introductory letter, the researcher should write his address
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and date on the top right side of the questionnaire.
The questionnaire/introductory letter should not be too lengthy.
The researcher should guarantee respondents of security or
anonymity in the introductory letter part or aspect of the
questionnaire.
The researcher should list or write down all the information s/he
wish to find out from the respondents like: educational
qualifications, age, sex, rank, etc
The purpose of the research and research problem should be
contained in the questionnaire. S/he must be clear about the
various aspects of his/her research problem to be dealt with in the
course of his/her research project.
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Guides to Drafting a
Questionnaires
 The researcher should ask questions that the responses
or answers will provide the desired information.
 The language of the questionnaire should be kept at the
level of the respondents.
 The researcher should avoid the use of embarrassing
questions or questions that may hurt the respondents’
ego.
 Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of
information sought, the sampled respondents and the
kind of analysis intended. The researcher must decide
whether to use closed or open-ended question.
Questions should be simple and must be constructed
with a view to their forming a logical part of a well
thought out tabulation plan.
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Guides to Drafting Questionnaires
 Rough draft of the Questionnaire should be prepared,
giving due thought to the appropriate sequence of
putting questions. Questionnaires previously drafted (if
available) may as well be looked into at this stage.
 Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of
need may revise the rough draft for a better one.
Technical defects must be minutely scrutinized and
removed.
 Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the
questionnaire. The questionnaire may be edited in the
light of the results of the pilot study.
 Questionnaire must contain simple but straight
forward directions for the respondents so that they may
not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.
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Qualities of a Good Questionnaire
 A good questionnaire should be tailored along the following
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points:
Questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple
i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the
minimum.
Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from
easy to more difficult questions.
Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different
interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire.
Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers),
multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended.
The latter types of questions are often difficult to analyze
and hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the
extent possible.
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Qualities of a Good Questionnaire
 There should be some control questions in the
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questionnaire which indicate the reliability of the
respondent.
The control questions, thus, introduce a cross-check to see
whether the information collected is correct or not.
Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should
be avoided.
Adequate space for answers should be provided in the
questionnaire to help editing and tabulation.
There should always be provision for indications of
uncertainty, e.g., “do not know,” “no preference” and so on.
Brief directions with regard to filling up the questionnaire
should invariably be given in the questionnaire itself.
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Qualities of a Good Questionnaire
Contd
 The physical appearance of the questionnaire affects
the cooperation the researcher receives from the
recipients and as such an attractive looking
questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a plus
point for enlisting cooperation.
 The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must
be good so that it may attract the attention of
recipients.
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Collection of secondary data
Secondary data constitute data collected from already existing records. Secondary data means
data that are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have already been collected
and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then he has to
look into various sources from where he can obtain them.
In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the
collection of original data. Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished
data. Usually published data are available in: (a) various publications of the central, state are
local governments;
(b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary
organizations;
(c) technical and trade journals;
(d) books, magazines and newspapers;
(e) reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry,
banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
(f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc in different fields; and
(g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published
information.
The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished
biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research
workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/ private individuals and
organizations.
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Data Processing and Analysis
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in
accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose at the
time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a
scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant
data for making contemplated comparisons and analysis.
Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of collected data so that they
are amenable to analysis (Kothari, 2004). The term analysis
refers to the computation of certain measures along with
searching for patterns of relationship that exist among datagroups. Thus, in the process of analysis, relationships or
differences supporting or conflicting with original or new
hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said
to indicate any conclusions (Best and Kahn, 1986).
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Processing Operations
 Editing: this involves a careful scrutiny of the
completed questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing
is done to assure that the data are accurate,
consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly
entered, as completed as possible and have been
well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
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Processing Operations Contd
 Coding: refers to the process of assigning numerals or
other symbols to answers so that responses can be put
into a limited number of categories or classes. Such
classes should be appropriate to the research problem
under consideration.
 Classification: Most research studies result in a large
volume of raw data which must be reduced into
homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful
relationships. This fact necessitates classification of
data which happens to be the process of arranging data
in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Data having a common characteristic
are placed in one class and in this way the entire data
get divided into a number of groups or classes.
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Processing Operations Contd
 Tabulation: When a mass of data has been
assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher
to arrange the same in some kind of concise and
logical order. This procedure is referred to as
tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of
summarizing raw data and displaying the same in
compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables)
for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is
an orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows.
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Meaning of Data Analysis
 The analysis and interpretation of data represent the application of
deductive and inductive logic to the research process. The data are
often classified by way of division into, subgroups, and are then
analyzed and synthesized in such a manner that
hypotheses/propositions may be verified or rejected. The final
result may be a new principle or generalization. Data are examined
in terms of comparison between the more homogeneous segments
within the group and by comparison with some outside criteria.
 Analysis of data includes comparison of the outcomes of the various
treatments upon the several groups and the making of a decision as
to the achievement of the goals of research. Data relevant to each
hypothesis must be assembled in quantitative form and tested to
determine whether or not there is a significant difference in the
results obtained from the controlled groups. Usually the analysis
develops as a comparison between groups.
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Importance of Data Treatment
and Analysis
After administering and scoring research tools scripts, data are
collected and organized, the collected data are known as
‘raw data.’ The raw data are meaningless unless certain
statistical treatment is given to them. Analysis of data
means to make the raw data meaningful or to draw some
results from the data after the proper treatment. The ‘null
hypotheses’ are tested with the help of analysis of data so as
to obtain some significant results. Thus, the analysis of data
serves the following main functions:
 To make the raw data meaningful,
 To test null hypothesis,
 To obtain the significant results,
 To draw some inferences or make generalization, and
 To estimate parameters.
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Data Presentation
The presentation of data is an important aspect of
data analysis. The purpose of presentation of data is
to highlight the results and to make data or results
more illustrative. The visual presentation of data or
results is simple and easy to understand. The
graphical and pictorial presentations provide the
geometrical image of data. It enables us to
comprehend the essential features of the frequency
distribution. It also helps in observing the
assumptions of the statistical analysis applied for
the treatment of data.
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Functions of Data Presentation
 Visual or pictorial presentation of data
 Makes the data easy to comprehend
 Helps in understanding the nature of the
distribution
 The assumptions of statistical analysis can also be
observed.
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RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to
accomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by report
writing. This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading
conclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research
may get vitiated. It is only through interpretation that the
researcher can expose relations and processes that underlie his
findings. In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses are
tested and upheld several times, the researcher may arrive at
generalizations. But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to
start with, he would try to explain his findings on the basis of some
theory. This may at times result in new questions, leading to further
researches. All this analytical information and consequential
inference(s) may well be communicated, preferably through
research reporting, to the consumers of research results who may be
either an individual or a group of individuals or some public/private
organizations.
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Steps in Research Report Writing
 Research reports are the product of slow,
painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual
steps involved in writing report are:
 logical analysis of the subject-matter;
 preparation of the final outline;
 preparation of the rough draft;
 re-writing and polishing;
 preparation of the final bibliography; and
 writing the final draft.
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HOW TO WRITE AN EFFECTIVE
ABSTRACT
Preparation, submission, and presentation of an abstract are
important facets of the research process, which benefit the
investigator/author in several ways. Writing an abstract
consists primarily of answering the questions, “Why did you
start the study?” “What did you do it?” “What did you find
from the study?” and “What does it mean?” Once an
investigator can provide sustainable answers to those key
questions, he obviously has carried out a research activity.
Abstract writing is one of the actions in the research process
that is not just demanding but intimidating owing to lack of
information on the guidelines and reluctance by many to
follow the rules. This section of the book deals primarily
with the hows and procedure for abstract writing for
research projects stating the steps in unambiguous terms.
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Meaning of an Abstract
An abstract is a concise statement of the major elements of your
research project, and the reader’s first encounter with your research.
It is a condensed version of a full scientific/academic paper. An
abstract is a kind of summary version of the manuscript, which
highlights the major points covered, concisely describes its content
and scope, and reveals the methodology adopted in the work.
Essentially, it should act as an advertisement for your work. It states
the purpose, methods, and findings of your research project. It is a
means of conveying to one’s peers what was done and why, what was
found, and what the implications are. Because it is strictly limited,
either in the number of words it can contain or in the space it can
occupy on a page, an abstract can be only a “bare bones” version of
all the information pertaining to the study. It is usually the first
section read and sets the tone of the paper for the reviewer. It must
be concise and easy to read and must cover the important points of
the paper. An abstract can be a stand-alone document that briefly
states the essential information of a paper, article, document, or
book or adjoining section of the entire document.
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Functions of an Abstract
 The abstract allows readers to make decisions about your project;
 It points out with ease the problem situation that gave rise to your
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study;
It goes further to tell how you tackled the observed problems;
Submits what you found out in doing the study;
Describes its implications
Your supervisor can use the abstract to decide if your research is
proceeding smoothly.
The conference organizer uses it to decide if your project fits the
conference criteria.
The conference audience (faculty, administrators, peers, and
presenters' families) uses your abstract to decide whether or not to
attend your panel.
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How do you write an abstract?
 Writing an abstract involves boiling down the essence of a whole paper into a
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single paragraph. One way to write an effective abstract is to start with the
complete draft and do the following:
Highlight the objective and the conclusions that are in the paper’s introduction
and discussion.
Bracket information in the methods section of the paper that contains keywords.
Highlight the results from the discussion or results section of the paper.
Compile the above highlighted and bracketed information into a single paragraph.
Condense the bracketed information into the key words and phrases that identify
without explaining the methods used.
Delete any extra words and phrases.
Delete any background information.
Rephrase the first sentence so that it starts off with the new information contained
in the paper, rather than the general topic. One way to do this is to begin the first
sentence with the phrase “this paper” or “this study.”
Revise the paragraph so that the abstract conveys the essential information.
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Components of an Abstract
 What should the abstract include? Think of your abstract as an
advertisement, or a condensed cum summary of your whole essay.
By reading it, the reader should understand the nature of your
research question. You should include the following:
 A specific and detailed title, indicating the question you
investigated, or the method, if that is important—it should be
complete enough to stand on its own without the abstract.
 A brief introduction to the topic-providing context or background
(don’t repeat or rephrase your title or any sentences from your paper,
and don’t analyze other papers!). Remember that what might seem
obvious to you after working on a longer research project is likely to
be new to your audience.
 Motivation. Why do we care about the problem and the results?
How do you address a “gap” in the field? This section should include
the importance of the work, and the impact it might have if
successful.
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Components of an Abstract Contd
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A statement of the study's objectives/purpose--what is the research question or the problem you are trying to
solve? What is the scope of your work (a generalized approach? A specific situation?)? What is your hypothesis?
What are the specific questions you are addressing with this project? For text based research projects, what
argument are you proposing? Do not include a statement like “this paper will look at”—such a statement is too
specific when you are discussing the general purpose and approach of your research.
Methodology/Approach (1-2 sentences): How did you go about solving or making progress on the problem? Did
you use simulation, analytic models, survey research, or analysis of field data? What kind of research did you
do? Is it historical, case study or what? What method did you employ in data collection and analysis? What
important variables did you control, ignore, or measure? What was the extent of your work? What theoretical
framework did you use to understand the problem?
A summary of results.
A statement of conclusions (or hypothesized conclusions). What new knowledge are you bringing to your field?
Are your results general, potentially generalizable, or specific? Possibly some discussion of the relevance of the
conclusions. What are the implications of your research? Are they generalizable or specific to a particular case?
You might note restrictions or limitations on the results by using words like “might,” “could,” “may,” and “seem.”
Be careful to use non-evaluative language; report instead of comment on your findings.
Possibly some call for future research. Whatever kind of research you are doing, your abstract should provide
the reader with the answers to the following questions: What are you asking? Why is it important? How will you
study it? What will you use to demonstrate your conclusions? What are those conclusions? What do they
mean?
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Basic Steps to Writing an Abstract
 The best way to write an effective abstract is to start with a draft of the
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complete manuscript and follow these 10 steps:
Identify the major objectives and conclusions.
Identify phrases with keywords in the methods section.
Identify the major results from the discussion or results section.
Assemble the above information into a single paragraph.
State your hypothesis or method used in the first sentence.
Omit background information, literature review, and detailed description
of methods.
Remove extra words and phrases.
Revise the paragraph so that the abstract conveys only the essential
information.
Check to see if it meets the guidelines of your Department or Institution.
Give the abstract to a colleague (preferably one who is not familiar with
your work and finally to your supervisor) and ask him/her whether it
makes sense.
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Common Mistakes in Abstract
Writing
 Experience has shown that often times, students and
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even practitioners commit some avoidable errors in
writing academic/scientific abstracts. These errors
include some of the following:
Too long, too much detail, or including too much
introductory/methodology material;
Using too much jargon. Use plain English and active
voice where you can, and simple sentences;
Not using complete sentences;
Too short, or not giving the reader sufficient context
and completeness: Shorter is not always better!
Vagueness.
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End of the Semester Lectures
Thank you so much
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