Transcript English Lexicography - Univerzita Karlova v Praze

English Monolingual
Lexicography
Patrick Hanks
formerly Chief Editor,
Current English Dictionaries,
Oxford University Press
1
Outline
• The purpose of a monolingual dictionary
• History of English monolingual dictionaries
– Some milestones
– Examples of earlier English lexicography
• Writing definitions and explanations
• Selecting and arranging entries
• Etymologies and word histories
2
A brief historical survey of
English dictionaries
__
3
R. Cawdrey (1604): A Table alphabeticall
– explains “hard words”
S. Johnson (1755): Dictionary
– Citations from literature. Full vocabulary coverage.
N. Webster (1828): American Dictionary of the English Language
– A nationalistic adventure. Webster’s debt to Johnson.
– “consulting the opinions of some gentlemen in whose judgment I
had trust” (seeking agreement on definitions – convention)
J. A. H. Murray et al. (1884-1928): OED
– Historical principles. Interaction with literary, medieval and IndoEuropean scholarship.
Isaac Funk (1894): Funk and Wagnall’s Standard Dictionary of the
English Language.
– put the “most important current definition” first.
Merriam Webster’s Second New International Dictionary (1933)
– Monumental. Many discursive, quasi-encyclopedic explanations.
4
Lexicography is accretive
One dictionary builds on another.
• William Dwight Witney (1891): The Century Dictionary
– “neither in meaning nor in form is language to be dominated by its past”
• Clarence Barnhart (1947): American College Dictionary (1947)
• Jess Stein and Laurence Urdang (1966): Random House Dictionary
• Patrick Hanks (1971): Hamlyn Dictionary (UK)
• Arthur Delbridge (1981): Macquarie Dictionary (Australia)
All these dictionaries attempt to “put the modern meaning first”.
(Without corpus evidence, it is hard to decide what is the “modern
meaning”.)
5
Some 20th-century English
dictionaries
W. Geddie (1901): Chambers 20th-Century Dictionary
– A vast ragbag. Many rare Scottish dialect terms. Some witty
definitions, e.g.
“éclair, a confection long in shape but short in duration”
H. W. Fowler (1911): Concise Oxford Dictionary
– A distillation of OED. Interesting approach to sense groupings.
P. Hanks (1979): Collins English Dictionary
– Coverage of technical vocabulary and names. Guidance on usage.
P. Hanks and J. Pearsall (1998): New Oxford Dictionary of English
– Corpus-based and citation-based. Distinguishes core senses from
subsenses. Major vocabulary surveys, e.g. of languages, flora and
fauna, technology etc. Syntactic information. Corpus-based
guidance on usage.
6
Some EFL dictionaries
A.S. Hornby (1947): Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
– Pedagogical. Gives syntax, e.g. verb patterns, count vs. uncount
nouns.
P. Procter (1978): Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
– Restricted defining vocabulary. More elaborate syntax.
– Semantic fields in the electronic version.
J. M. Sinclair, P. Hanks, et al. (1987): Cobuild
– Corpus-based; real-language examples. Full-sentence definitions,
showing how to use the word normally and naturally.
P. Procter (1993): Cambridge International Dictionary of English
– Corpus-based; gives syntagmatics and semantic fields.
M. Rundell (2001): Macmillan English Dictionary
– Much pedagogical help with vocabulary building.
7
Motivation and definition writing
in earlier English dictionaries
__
8
The first English dictionaries
were bi- and multi-lingual
Thomas Thomas. 1587. Dictionarium Linguae Latinae et
Anglicanae. [13th edition 1631]
Richard Percyvale (1591): Bibliotheca Hispanica.
Containing a Grammar, with a Dictionarie in Spanish,
English and Latine, gathered out of divers good
Authors: very profitable for the studious of the
Spanish toong.
John Minsheu: Ductor in Linguas (1617). [Spanish]
Randle Cotgrave (1611): A dictionarie of the French and
English tongues.
John Florio: World of Words (1598) and New World of Words
(1611) [Italian]
9
The first monolingual English
dictionary
Robert Cawdrey (1604): A Table Alphabeticall … of
hard usuall English wordes, borrowed from the
Hebrew, Greeke, Latin, or French, etc. … gathered
for the benefit and help of Ladies, Gentlewomen,
or any other unskillful persons
10
Why “for the benefit of ladies”?
1: historical background
• The English language was “softened up” by the
Norman invasion (1066). [Contrast German]
• Norman French: the language of the law.
• Medieval Latin: the language of the Church and of
scholarship.
• Early Modern English: the vernacular of the
peasantry (but also Chaucer)
• Not much literary writing between Chaucer (died
1400) and Shakespeare (born 1564).
11
Why “for the benefit of ladies”?
2: English in the Renaissance
• Renaissance vocabulary: thousands of
learned words (‘inkhorn terms’) were
imported into English from Latin.
• Establishment of Protestantism under
Edward VI reigned 1547-53 (died age 16).
• King Edward VI Grammar Schools; other
traditional boys’ public schools (e.g. Eton).
• No education for girls.
12
Entries from Cawdey 1604
alchimie, the art of turning other mettals into gold
alien, a stranger
alienate, to estrange, or with-drawe the mind, or to make a thing another
mans
allegorie, similitude, a misticall speech, more then the bare letter
allegiance, obedience of a subiect
allusion, meaning and pointing to another matter then is spoken in words
allude, to speake one thing that hath resemblence and respect to another
altercation, debate, wrangling, or contention
altitude, height
amaritude, bitternesse
ambage, long circumstance of words
13
From Johnson 1755 (1)
ALCHYMY,
1. the more sublime and occult part of chymystry, which proposes, for
its object, the transmutation of metals, and other important operations.
There is nothing more dangerous than this licentious and
deluding art, which changeth the meaning of words, as alchymy
doth, or would do, the substance of metals, maketh of anything
what it listeth, and bringeth, in the end, all truth to nothing.
Hooker.
O he sits high in all the people’s hearts;
And that which would appear offence in us,
His countenance, like richest alchymy,
Will change to virtue, and to worthiness. Shakesp. J. Caesar.
Princes do but play us; compared to this,
All honours mimick, all wealth alchymy.
Donne.
14
From Johnson 1755 (2)
ALCHYMY,
2. A kind of mixed metal used for spoons, and kitchen utensils.
The golden colour may be some mixture of orpiment,
such as they use to brass in the yellow alchymy.
Bacon.
White alchymy is made of pan-brass one pound, and arsenicum
three ounces; or alchymy is made of copper and auripigmentum.
Bacon’s Physical Remains
They bid cry,
With trumpets regal found, the great result:
Tow’rds the four winds, four speedy cherubim
Put to their mouth the sounding alchymy,
By herald’s voice explained. Milton’s Paradise Lost, book 2
15
From Johnson 1755 (3)
ALCOHOL,
An Arabick term used by chymists for a high rectified dephlegmated
spirit of wine, or for anything reduced into an impalpable powder.
Quincy.
If the same salt shall be reduced into alcohol, as the chymists speak, or
an impalpable powder, the particles and intercepted spaces will be
extremely lessened. Boyle.
Sal volatile oleosum will coagulate the serum on account of the
alcahol, or rectified spirit, which it contains.
Arbuthnot.
16
From Johnson 1755 (4)
DEPHLEGMATE, v.a.
To clear from phlegm, or aqueous insipid matter.
PHLEGM, … 2. water.
A linen cloth, dipped in common spirit of wine, is not burnt by the
flame, because the phlegm of the liquor defends the cloth.
Boyle.
[But Greek phlegma means ‘fire’! The meaning change (to ‘liquid
secretion’, via ‘inflammation of the body’) took place in Late Latin]
17
Aspects of Johnson
•
•
•
•
•
Literary style of definition writing
Citations from literature, especially poets
Reliance on scientific and technical authority
Very full coverage of the vocabulary
Few concessions to make things easier for the
reader
18
Definition Writing in modern
dictionaries
__
19
Random House Dictionary (1966)
alcohol …1. … a colorless, limpid, volatile, flammable, watermiscible liquid, C2H5OH, having an etherlike odor and pungent,
burning taste, the intoxicating principle of fermented liquors,
produced by yeast fermentation of certain carbohydrates, as grains,
molasses, starch, or sugar, or obtained synthetically by hydration of
ethylene or as a by-product of certain syntheses: used chiefly as a
solvent in the extraction of specific substances, in beverages,
medicines, organic synthesis, lotions, tonics, colognes, rubbing
compounds, as an automobile radiator antifreeze, and as a rocket
fuel. 2. whiskey, gin, vodka, or any other intoxicating liquor
containing this liquid. 3. Chem. Any of a class of compounds
…having the general formula ROH, where R represents an alkyl
group and –OH a hydroxyl group…
20
New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998)
alcohol … a colourless volatile flammable liquid which is
the intoxicating constituent of wine, beer, spirits, and other
drinks, and is also used as an industrial solvent and as fuel.
• Alternative names: ethanol, ethyl alcohol; formula:
C2H5OH.
• drink containing this: he has not taken alcohol in 25 years.
• Chemistry. any organic compound whose molecule
contains one or more hydroxyl groups attached to a carbon
atom.
21
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary,
6th edition (2000)
alcohol
noun [U] 1 drinks such as beer, wine, etc., that
can make people drunk: He never drinks alcohol. •
alcohol
abuse 2 the colourless liquid that is found in drinks such as
beer, wine, etc., and is used in medicines, cleaning
products, etc.: Wine usually contains about 10% alcohol. •
levels of alcohol in the blood •
He pleaded guilty to driving
with excess alcohol. •
Low-alcohol beer •
Choose an
alcohol-free skin toner if you have dry skin.
22
Cobuild (1987)
alcohol
1.
2.
Drinks that can make people drunk, such as beer, wine,
and whisky, can be referred to as alcohol. •
Do either of
you smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol? … No alcohol is
allowed on the premises.
Alcohol is a colourless liquid that is found in drinks such
as beer, wine, and whisky. It is also used in products
such as perfumes and cleaning fluids. •
…low-alcohol
beer … Products for dry skin have little or no alcohol.
23
from a Wasps word sketch
(http//:wasps.itri.brighton.ac.uk)
alcohol (as modifier)
• alcohol consumption
• alcohol abuse
• alcohol intake
• alcohol misuse
• alcohol content
• alcohol problem
• alcohol dependency
• alcohol dependence
BNC freq.
131
114
53
23
35
38
5
7
MI score
34.0
31.3
18.2
17.7
15.3
11.3
10.1
9.2
24
Random House Dictionary (1966)
alchemy … 1. a form of chemistry and speculative
philosophy practiced in the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance and concerned principally with discovering
methods for transmuting baser metals into gold and with
finding a universal solvent and an elixir of life. 2. any
magical powder or process of transmuting a common
substance, usually of little value, into a substance of great
value.
25
New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998)
alchemy … the medieval forerunner of chemistry, based
on the supposed transformation of matter. It was concerned
particularly with attempts to convert base metals into gold
or find a universal elixir.
• figurative A process by which paradoxical results are
achieved or incompatible elements combined with no
obvious rational explanation: his conducting managed by
some alchemy to give a sense of fire and ice.
26
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary,
6th edition (2000)
alchemy noun [U]
1 a form of chemistry studied in the Middle Ages
which involved trying to discover how to change
ordinary metals into gold. 2 (literary) a mysterious
power or magic that can change things.
27
Cobuild (1987)
alchemy
1.
2.
Alchemy was a form of chemistry studied in the Middle
Ages, which was concerned with trying to discover ways
to change ordinary metals into gold.
Alchemy is the power to change or create things in a
way which seems mysterious and magical. [LITERARY]
•Let us imagine that by some political alchemy it had
been possible to make all men equal.
28
Some issues in definition writing
• A verbless phrase or a full sentence (as in Cobuild)?
• Defining the ‘essence’ of something, or characterizing
what it typically is.
• How much technical detail to put in, and how to present it?
• The role of examples.
• How to express changing beliefs, scepticism (e.g. about
alchemy).
• How to relate figurative extensions to the ‘literal’ meaning
(e.g. alchemy = a former science, but also apparent magic;
alcohol = strong drink as well as a chemical)
29
Deciding what is a sense
complain v.i. 1. express dissatisfaction or annoyance about
a state of affairs or an event. 2. (complain of) state that
one is suffering from (a pain): he began to complain of
headaches.
• This could be: “express dissatisfaction about a state of affairs or a pain
that one is suffering from” BUT:
complaint n. 1. A statement that a situation is unsatisfactory or unacceptable. 2. An illness or medical condition:
a skin complaint.
• Words and senses interact with one another. Dictionaries have their
own kind of textual discourse structure. They are not just lists.
30
Selecting entries
• ‘All’ the words of a language?
– The dictionary as as inventory of the language
– But the inventory of a living language has no fixed
size: neologisms, slang, foreign borrowings, technical
jargon, etc., etc.
• Should a dictionary include names?
– The dictionary as a cultural index
– are “English” and “England” words or names?
– What about “Christ”? (problematic if only entered as
an oath. It is an oath, but it is also a proper name.)
31
Other information in the
dictionary
__
32
How much grammatical
information should a
dictionary include?
• Danger: the (English) public are resistant to grammar.
• But grammatical differences must be stated to distinguish
one sense from another.
• NODE uses [with obj.], [no obj.], [with adverbial], with
obj. and adverbial], etc. (It dares not go much farther!)
• NODE uses various other devices, including highlighting
common phraseology in examples.
• NODE makes no explicit mention of count nouns except
where contrasted with mass nouns.
33
Boxed features
Page design: breaking the monotony of the page.
Boxed features – for usage notes, historical asides,
and other subsidiary information. Example:
• USAGE The core meaning of refute is ‘prove (a statement
or theory) to be wrong’, as in attempts to refute Einstein’s
theory. In the second half of the 20th century, a more
general sense developed, meaning simply ‘deny’, as in I
absolutely refute the charges made against me. Traditionalists object to the second use on the grounds that it is
an unacceptable degradation of the language, but it is now
widely accepted in standard English.
34
Arrangement of senses
• On historical principles? (oldest sense first)
camera 1. a small room. 2. the treasury of the papal curia. 3.
a device for taking photographs.
• Or representing conventional contemporary
usage?
camera 1. a device for taking photographs. 2. in camera: in
a small room (used of a judge hearing evidence in private).
35
What is the function of
etymologies?
• To record the morphological and phonological
development of words, from ancient languages (French,
Latin, Greek, Old Norse, *Germanic, *IndoEuropean,
etc.), up to their first occurrence in English?
• Or to tell the story of the word’s history? EG
Camera … [from Latin camera ‘small room’. The modern
sense developed in the 19th century via the 18th century
term camera obscura, denoting a darkened upper room
with a (rotating) angled mirror at the apex of the roof,
which projected an image of the surrounding landscape
onto a flat surface in the room]
• Or both?
36
Word histories: explaining
semantic development, too
madrigal – from Italian madrigale, medieval Latin carmen
matricale ‘simple song’ (i.e. one without instrumental
accompaniment), from Latin matricalis ‘maternal, simple,
primitive’, from matrix ‘womb’.
magazine – via Italian from Arabic makzin ‘storehouse’
(for armaments and goods, hence, figuratively, for facts):
the same word as French magasin ‘shop, department
store’.
size – from assizes ‘sitting of a law court’. A ‘size loaf’ was a
loaf of a dimension determined by a law court.
37
Conclusions
• The purpose(s) of monolingual dictionaries:
– To answer all of everbody’s questions about words,
without knowing in advance what the questions are
going to be.
– The lexicographer must consider the needs,
expectations, and limitations of the dictionary user.
• Coverage (in addition to core vocabulary)
– slang and neologisms (journalists love them!)
– technical vocabulary for a technological world
– names of famous people and places
• A dictionary entry can tell a story.
• Many dictionaries also give guidance on usage.
38