Theories of Criminal Behaviour

Biological Roots of Criminal Behavior

Major Principles of Biological Theories

 The brain is the organ of the mind and the locus of personality  The basic determinants of human behavior are constitutionally or genetically based  Observed gender and racial differences in rates and types of criminality may be at least partially the result of biological differences between the sexes and/or between racially distinct groups

Major Principles of Biological Theories

 The basic determinants of human behavior may be passed on from generation to generation  Much of human conduct is fundamentally rooted in instinctive behavioral responses characteristic of biological organisms everywhere  The interplay between heredity, biology, and the social environment provides the nexus for any realistic consideration of crime causation

Early Biological Theories

 Lombroso in 1876 argued that the criminal is a separate species, a species that is between modern and primitive humans.

 He argued that the physical shape of the head and face determined the "born criminal".

Early Biological Theories

 Lombroso studied and measured the bodies of executed and deceased offenders as well as examining living inmates to locate physical differences or abnormalities  Claimed to have found a variety of bodily features predictive of criminal behavior  Long arms, large teeth, ears lacking lobes, lots of body hair  Also identified characteristics of particular types of offenders

Early Biological Theories

 Constitutional Theories 

William Sheldon

 Used body measurement techniques to connect body type with personality and outlined four basic body types and associated temperaments and personalities

Body types

 people could be classified into three body shapes, which correspond with three different personality types.

1.

endomorphic

(fat and soft) tend to be sociable and relaxed.

2.

ectomorphic

(thin and fragile) are introverted and restrained

3.

mesomorphic

(muscular and hard) tend to be aggressive and adventurous.  Sheldon, using a correlational study, found that many convicts were mesomorphic, and they were least likely to be ectomorphic

Endomorph, Mesomorph, Ectomorph,

Modern Biological Theories

 Biochemical (diet, hypoglycemia, hormones, environmental exposure)  Neurophysiological (brain dysfunction)  Evolutionary theories

Modern Biological Theories

   Hormones and criminality  Testosterone   Male sex hormone linked to aggression Research has shown a relationship between high blood testosterone levels and increase male aggression  Low brain levels of serotonin Genetics and Crime: XYY Supermale  Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes  The last pair determines gender  Males: XY pair  Females: XX pair  A study of Scottish prisoners found that a small number had an XYY chromosome.These were identified as potentially violent and labeled “supermale” Criminal Families  criminal families appeared to show criminal tendencies through several generations

Modern Biological Theories

  Weather and Crime  Temperature is the only weather variable consistently and reliably related to crime  Positive correlation between temperature and violent crime  Moderated by factors such as time of day, day of week and season. Cohn and Rotton have found temperature to be related to crimes such as assault, property offenses, domestic violence and disorderly conduct Chemical and environmental precursors of crime (nutrition, eating habits, and environmental contaminants related to violent and/or disruptive behavior)

Psychological approach to the study of crime

Psychological Perspectives on Criminality

Psychoanalytic Theory

 Sigmund Freud (1856 –1939): One can understand human behavior best by examining early childhood experiences.



Criminality

is linked to guilt feelings (unresolved oedipal and Electra complexes).

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

 Human behaviour is governed by primitive urges (eros and thanatos) of the ID.  ID requires repression which results in formation of Ego and Superego.

Freudian Explanations of Delinquency 

Human nature is inherently antisocial

 Id: infants start life with antisocial drives  Superego: forms from experience  Ego: helps to negotiate demands for instant gratification with acceptable behavior

Freudian Elements of Personality

Psychoanalytic interpretations

   3 Main principles of psychodynamic theory when applied to delinquent + criminal behaviour are that delinquent behavior can be traced to faulty relationships in the

family

during the first years of life These

faulty relationships

result in inadequate ego and superego development These inadequacies in turn make it impossible for the child to

control

later delinquent impulses

Freudian Approach

•John Bowlby (1946) studied 44 juvenile delinquents and compared them with non criminal disturbed juveniles. •39% of the delinquents had experienced complete separation from their mothers for six months or more during the first five years of their lives compared with 5% of the control group. • early maternal deprivation was

causally

to delinquent behaviour related

Erik Erikson (1902-84)

 Stage theorist.  During adolescence

identity vs. role confusion

stage may result in identity crisis.

 Out-of-control behaviours (e.g. drug experimentation) reflect identity crisis.

Behavioural Theories

Social Learning Theory

Aggression   Is learned, not innate.

Requires personal observation of aggression or rewards for aggression.

  Involves behaviour modelling of family members, community members and mass media Three types of learning  Classical conditioning   Operant conditioning Observational (vicarious) learning

Principles of Learning



Positive

reinforcement: increases the target behavior by rewarding the individual 

Negative

reinforcement: increases the target behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus 

Punishment

: reduces the odds of the target behavior being repeated

Behavioural explanations of crime

   

All behaviour is learned

said to be learnt in much the same way as other behaviour - deviant behaviour is Direct parental control: theorists tie delinquency to

parents’ failure to effectively condition their children

away from negative behaviors Glueck and Glueck:

inconsistent and harsh punishment

correlates with delinquent children Patterson:

effective parenting

punishing, and reinforcing behavior) correlates with nondeliquent children (monitoring,

Principles of Learning

Albert Bandura

Violence and aggression are produced by

 An arousal event (provocation).

 Learned aggressive skills.

 Expected success and rewards.

 Pro-violence values.

Bandura

 Observational learning is thought to take place primarily in three contexts:  1. In the family  2. In the prevalent sub culture  3. Through cultural symbols such as television and books.

Observational learning:

This is where viewers learn behaviours from watching others and may imitate them; many behaviours are learned from the media - Models: A model is a person who is observed and/or imitated.

Bobo doll experiments

 show preschoolers a short film of a person beating up a bobo doll.  They were shown the short film twice, but there were three different endings watched by three different groups of children.  First photo shown is the demonstrated short film with a person beating up a bobo doll.

 The second photo shown is what the preschoolers did after they watched the short film.

Media and Crime

 Does media (TV and movies) influence aggression, violence, and criminal behavior?  Conducive to role modeling:  Perpetrators not punished  Targets of violence show little pain  Few long-term negative consequences

Media and Violence

 Media provides aggressive scripts.

 Violence is copied.

 TV violence increases arousal level.

 TV violence promotes attitude change, suspicious feelings.

 TV violence promotes justification for violence.

 Media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour.

Policy Implications of Behaviorism

 Criminals can learn pro-social behaviors to replace criminal actions

Cognitive Theory

Cognitive Psychology

   Humans’ ability to engage in complex thoughts influences behavior Cognitions (like behaviors) can be learned   Focus on Cognitive structure (how people think) Cognitive content (what people think)

Cognitive Structure

 Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning: humans advance through predictable stages of moral reasoning  delinquency is not synonymous with immoral behaviour  the reasoning of higher moral stages is less likely to fit in with a criminal lifestyle  justification for violating the law can be found at all stages

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (1 of 2)

 Stage 1  Right is blindly obeying those with power and authority.

 Emphasis is on avoiding punishment.

 Interests of others are not considered.

 Stage 2  Right is furthering one’s own interests.

 Interests of others are important only as a way to satisfy self-interests.

 Stage 3  Moral reasoning is motivated by loyalties to others and a desire to live up to other’s standards.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (2 of 2)

 Stage 4  Right is following the rules of society and maintaining important social institutions (e.g., family, community).

 Stage 5  Moral decisions are made by weighing individual rights against legal principles and the common good.

 Stage 6  Moral decisions are based on universal principles (e.g., human dignity, desire for justice).

 Principles are considered across different contexts and are independent of the law.

Moral Development

Research shows that  Criminals tend to be in stages 1 and 2.

 Non-criminals are in higher stages.

 People in lower stages fear punishment.

 People in middle stages fear reaction of family and friends.

 People in highest stages believe in duty to others, universal rights.

Cognitive Content

  Rationalizations or denials that support criminal behavior For example, a criminal thinks, “I’m not really hurting anyone.”  Criminals are more likely to express such thoughts, but the relationship (causation or correlation) to crime is unclear.

 Extremely common for sex offenders

Policy Implications of Cognitive Psychology

 Cognitive theory translates easily into practice.  Cognitive skills programs teach offenders cognitive skills like moral reasoning, anger management, or self-control.

 Cognitive restructuring attempts to change the content of an individual’s thoughts.

 Combination cognitive-behavioral programs have had significant success.

Personality traits theory

Eysenck’s Theory of Personality

   Argued against sociological theories.

Criminal behavior resulted from an interaction of environment and biology.

Based on biology.

 Personality = Temperament (inborn/genetic)

Neurotic

Choleric

Central NS Extraverted Ambiverts Peripheral NS

Sanguine

Stable

Melancholic

Intoverted

Phlegmatic

Eysenck’s Personality Theory

Suggests that high levels of introvertism and extrovertism can be related to crime.

Also introduced a P scale (psychoticism) to predict criminal behaviour.

definitions

   

stable extraverts

(

sanguine

qualities such as outgoing, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, leadership)

unstable extraverts

irresponsible) (

choleric

qualities such as touchy, restless, excitable, changeable, impulsive,

stable introverts

careful, passive) (

phlegmatic

qualities such as - calm, even-tempered, reliable, controlled, peaceful, thoughtful,

unstable introverts

moody). (

melancholic

qualities such as quiet, reserved, pessimistic, sober, rigid, anxious,

Extraversion - Introversion

   Reflects “need for stimulation”.

Extraverts like excitement, become bored more easily, welcome the unconventional Criminals are more likely to be extraverts  Impulsive    Thrill-seeking Willing to take chances May be less able to internalize society’s rules – i.e., less ‘conditionable’.

Neurotic -Stable and Crime

   Criminals are more likely to be neurotic:   Emotionality acts as a drive to habitual ways of responding.

When under stress – do what you know best.

Impacts criminality only if the individual has developed anti social ‘habits’.

More important factor as one ages (habits become more engrained)

Psychoticism

   Is not the same as “psychosis” No established physiological mechanism but testosterone, monoamine oxidase and serotonin may be involved.

Similar to Primary Psychopathy  Cold cruelty, social insensitivity, dislike of others, attraction to the ‘unusual.

Conclusion

 The common emphasis of all psychological theories is on the individual.

 Each theory must be evaluated on its ability to account for criminality.

 Not all theories are well supported by evidence.

 Many psychological theories translate well into treatment programs.