PERIOD 1: TECHNOLOGICAL & ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES

To 600 BCE

BIG GEOGRAPHY & THE PEOPLING OF EARTH

Key Concept #1

PALEOLITHIC MIGRATION

 During the Americas Paleolithic Era , hunter-gatherer (HG) tribes gradually migrated from East Africa (origin) to Eurasia, Australia, and the   200,000BCE humans originated out of Africa;

Out of Africa

claims humans then left 60,000BCE So, who are these bands of hunter-gatherers? small, based on kinship  theory mobile, egalitarian,

PALEOLITHIC MIGRATION

 During the Paleolithic Era , Australia, and the Americas hunter-gatherer (HG) tribes gradually migrated from East Africa (origin) to Eurasia,  HGs adapt: adapted to their environments   Through controlled use of fire  protection from predators/climate (as far back as 800,000BCE in Fertile Crescent) Through use of man made tools  Not all HGs were self-sufficient  goods exchanged people, ideas, 

Original Affluent Society Theory

--> HGs worked less and had more free time than we do now --> much easier lives

STONE AGE



Stone Age --> 2m-2000BCE: period in which tools were made from non-metallic (stone) substances (others? --> bone, skin, wood)

 Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)--> period of the Stone Age associated with the evolution of humans: to 8000BCE  Neolithic (New Stone Age) --> period of the Stone Age associated with the ancient Agricultural Revolution: 8000BCE-2000BCE

FOOD: GATHERING TO PRODUCING



Around 8000BCE the Neolithic Revolution(s) occurred, leading to new and more complex economic and social systems.

 Farming was discovered (not invented)… but why?

 Possibly a response to climatic change, (

the first

)

permanent

agricultural villages emerged first in the lands of the eastern Mediterranean.  Agriculture

emerged at different times

Nile River Valley, and Sub-Saharan Africa, the Indus River Valley, the Yellow River/Huang He Valley, Papua New Guinea, Mesoamerica, and the Andes.

in Mesopotamia, the

FOOD: GATHERING TO PRODUCING

 Around 8000BCE the Neolithic Revolution occurred, leading to new and more complex economic and social systems.

 Farming was discovered (not invented)… but why?

 Possibly a response to climatic change, (

the first

)

permanent

agricultural villages emerged first in the lands of the eastern Mediterranean.  Agriculture

emerged at different times

in Mesopotamia, the Nile River Valley, and Sub-Saharan Africa, the Indus River Valley, the Yellow River/Huang He Valley, Papua New Guinea, Mesoamerica, and the Andes .

AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS

 The Agricultural Revolutions  Food-gathering to food production that occurred 8000BCE 2000BCE (Neolithic)  Not a single event, but a series of separate transformations in different parts of the world (independently)  First occurred in the Middle East;----- shifting cultivation ( swidden agriculture ): leaving fields fallow to regain nutrients  Animal Domestication --> first? dog; why animals? --> track game, provide meat/milk/fiber/energy; fertilizer; Americas (1) v Old World (14);

FOOD: GATHERING TO PRODUCING

 Around 8000BCE the social systems.

Neolithic Revolution occurred, leading to new and more complex economic and  Pastoralism (migratory humans herding migratory animals) developed at various sites in the grasslands of Afro-Eurasia.

 Pastoralists were important agents for diffusing new ideas/technology

FOOD: GATHERING TO PRODUCING

 Around 8000BCE the Neolithic Revolution occurred, leading to new and more complex economic and social systems.

 What was domesticated, and where?

 Mesopotamia (also known as the "Fertile Crescent") - wheat, goats;     SE Asia - rice; Mesoamerica - corn ("maize"); Sub-Saharan Africa - yams, cattle; Andes - potatoes

FOOD: GATHERING TO PRODUCING

 Around 8000BCE the Neolithic Revolution occurred, leading to new and more complex economic and social systems.

  Agricultural communities had to work cooperatively to clear land and create the water control systems needed for crop production.

  Irrigation! --> Humans manipulated the environment to aid in the production of foodstuffs (the items just mentioned above)… How did they do this specifically? --> wells; qanats The amount of water that could be supplied directly affected the size of the settlement These agricultural practices drastically impacted environmental diversity.  Pastoralists also affected the environment by grazing large numbers of animals on fragile grasslands, leading to erosion when overgrazed.

QANAT

FOOD CHANGE: SOCIAL AFFECTS



Gathers (G) v Producers (P)

 P work harder for longer periods of time (modern studies) why? guard land, guide herds to pastures, clear/cultivate lands  Less nutritious diet for P, but less likely to starve  P more exposure to diseases aka death  P organized in lineages or clans, acted together to promote common interests (matrilineal v patrilineal) --> ancestor veneration?

SOCIOECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES

 So how exactly did agriculture/ pastoralism societies?

transform human  Consistently, more abundant food supplies  population leads to  increase in  In turn, the surplus of food allowed for specialization of labor   With more food than could be consumed, not all humans had to contribute to the hunting and harvesting food. So what did they do with this extra free time? They began to work on other things of course!

New social stratification (egalitarian no more!) --> Humans focused on being warriors, artisans, traders, rulers...

SOCIOECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES

 Technological innovations led to improvements in agricultural production, trade, and transportation.

  Pottery, plows, woven textiles, metallurgy, and wheeled vehicles Elite groups accumulated wealth  Creating more hierarchical social structures and promoting patriarchal (father rules family, running society) forms of social organization.

THE FIRST (6) CIVILIZATIONS

KEY CONCEPT #2

FIRST OF ALL, WHAT IS A CIVILIZATION?

 Epic of Gilgamesh (2000BCE)  Defines civilization Iraq) understood it: as the people of ancient Mesopotamia (present-day  Gilgamesh (king) sends temple prostitute to tame Enkidu (wild man, symbolic of HG), taming = civilizing in that eat cooked food, wear clothes, drink beer, bathe, worship gods in temple city center  1.

Characteristics of Civilization Cities as administrative centers (control/govern outside territories) 2.

3.

4.

Political system no longer based on kinship (blood-lines) Specialization of labor (made possible by surplus of food!) Social stratification occurs (think: patriarchy in, egalitarianism is out) in which case money is power 5.

6.

7.

Monumental building occurs (think: pyramids, ziggurats, urban planning, irrigation) System for keeping permanent records (writing systems) Long-distance trade ---- major advances in science and the arts

1. MESOPOTAMIA

Mesopotamia  Translated, it means “Land between the rivers" (Euphrates & Tigris)  This reflects the significance of the rivers to their way of life   Located in what we now call the "Fertile Crescent“  “First plants and animal domestication here at ~8000BCE Lugal    “Big men” 3000BCE, originally army leaders became secular leaders City-states absorbed others, created large territorial states (i.e. Akkadian state 2350BCE and Ur Dynasty (2112BCE)  Sumerians    ~5000BCE; responsible for irrigation tech; cuneiform (written language) Cities evolved from villages; city -state--> self-governing urban centers and the agricultural territories they controlled; those from city could labor in field OR specialize in other areas of occupation Irrigation = Dams--> why build them? --> to raise river level thereby causing water to flow down canals to the fields

1. MESOPOTAMIA

 Old Babylonian State    King Hammurabi (1792-1750BCE) Mesopotamian kings not normally seen as divine (in Egypt they were) Code of Hammurabi  Provided judges with punitive measures through illustrative examples  1.

Reflected 3 social divisions The free, landowning class, which included royalty, high-ranking officials, warriors, priests, merchants, artisans/shopkeepers 2.

3.

Dependent farmers and artisans Slaves, employed in domestic service --- penalties for crimes depended on the class of the offender, growing more severe in 2nd and 3rd classes)

1. MESOPOTAMIA

Social Inequality  Slavery not huge at this time in Mesopotamia   If there were slaves, they were often POWs or nomads Women     W/ downfall of HG, egalitarianism also fell Heavy physical labor of food production (male-based) elevated status of man against woman Food production increased ability to feed more mouths, that became primary role of women In Mesopotamian society they could still work, own property, just role in society is diminished

1. MESOPOTAMIA

Mesopotamian Culture  Written history - written by male scribes , trained professionals who applied their reading and writing skills to tasks of administration (almost entire population was illiterate ) lengthy training required, worked for government, could read hieroglyphics or other forms of writing  Religious:     Anthromorphic: Gods seen as like humans in form and conduct Polytheistic : believed in multiple gods Ziggurat --> a massive pyramidal stepped tower made of mud bricks; function is unknown; Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu, ~2100BCE Amulets --> small charms meant to protect the bearer from evil - show widespread belief in magic among the common people, despite the omnipresent temples within the city centers

2. EGYPT

Egypt  Between 5000BCE-3000BCE HG migrated from former mild/wet climate that is now the Sahara Desert, settling down into sedentary lifestyles along the Nile River     Upper Egypt (south) to Lower Egypt (north) Herodotus (Greek traveler, called the Father of History) called Egypt the "Gift of the Nile”… Why?

     Nile River World's longest river Bordered mostly by desert, banks of river support lush vegetation “Black Land v Red Land”: Today 90% of country is nearly inhospitable Agriculture is entirely dependent on the river (no rain south of delta) Unlike Tigris/Euphrates --> Nile flooded at exactly the right time for grain agriculture Well-endowed in resources: papyrus (rope, sails, paper); stone; clay; turquoise/copper; gold

2. EGYPT

 Old Kingdom (2575BCE-2134BCE)  Middle Kingdom (2040BCE-1640BCE)  New Kingdom (1532BCE-1070BCE)    Kingdom flourishing --> officials were appointed on merit (ability) Old/Middle - Isolationist (all foreigners were considered enemies); Nubia - gold; Each period of centralized (power resting in the hands of the few) political power/cultural achievement  Intermediate Periods took place in-between in which those characteristics were not present  Kingdom weak (Intermediate Periods occurred) when officials were appointed on hereditary-basis (family/blood-lines)

2. EGYPT

     Ruler  Pharaoh  (New Kingdom term): from an Egyptian phrase meaning "palace“ "Ruler of Two Lands" - Kings of Egypt bore this title to refer to Upper and Lower; Whole of Egypt was unified early in its history  Divine Kingship  From the time of the Old Kingdom Egyptians considered the king to be a god sent to earth to maintain ma'at (divinely authorized order of the universe)  To ensure they rejoin the other gods, massive resources were used to construct royal tombs -> pyramid : a large triangular stone monument used in Egypt and Nubia as a burial place for the king; largest erected during the Old Tools: made of stone (bronze still expensive/rare); had almost unlimited man power; Capitals: Old (Memphis); Middle, New (Thebes) (Valley of the Kings) Commerce --> controlled by government (diff: Mesopotamia --> urban middle class) Literacy --> developed by ~3100BCE; hieroglyphics writing system; picture symbols; hard to learn, only scribes/administration earliest form of

2. EGYPT

 Religion  Polytheistic  Devotion to magic was strong (especially of those in rural areas)  Egyptian Book of the Dead  Present in many excavated tombs, spells/rituals to ensure safe journey to next life  Mummification showed their obsession with afterlife  Pyramids built on edge of desert so as to not take up valuable agricultural space  Egypt and Mesopotamia ethnically heterogeneous

3. INDUS RIVER VALLEY

        The Indus Valley Civilization ( 2600BCE-1900BCE)   Indus River  Fertile floodplain that flooded 2 times a year Just upstream… Punjab Valley  present-day location of where Harappa was! Punjab Valley is highly contested between India and Pakistan today!

Best known for two great cities: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro  Earliest settlements; excavation near impossible due to high water table Harappa - 35k pop; Mohenjo-Daro much larger Both cities…  Had covered-drain pipes to carry waste away   Urban planning evidence of central authority (gov’t buildings in interior) Most people in Indus Valley lived in rural villages (same with Egypt)  More metal here than in Egypt/Meso Undeciphered writing system --> leaves many question marks Long-distance trade highly evident (seals on coins seen in Mesopotamia) Tech: irrigation, potter's wheel; mud bricks - building Downfall: cities abandoned --> ? --> "systems failure" natural disaster brought down political/social/economic systems

HOW DID THESE CIVILIZATIONS ADAPT?

Think: Human-Environment Interaction piece of SPICE  “Technology”  Ancient Greek word 

techne

means skill or specialized knowledge used to transform the natural environment and human society So, it’s not just irrigation, but religious lore, ceremony, and writing systems  Writing --> First appeared in Mesopotamia ~3300BCE found in chief temple of Uruk (a city)  Cuneiform --> a system of wiring in which wedge-shaped symbols represented words or syllables; so many symbols had to be memorized, so , literacy was restricted to those who studied it for many years ( scribes );  Used by Sumerians ; first used for economic reasons (pictures depicting what as inside clay balls)      Wheeled car ts; water channels; boats; donkeys as pack animals for overland caravans Metallurgy --> bronze (stronger and sharper than stone --- more durable than copper) Clay for personal carriage; mud bricks primar y building material War fare  At first only able-bodied men who were called up when needed   Then, in 3000BCE-2000BCE, well-trained and well-paid soldiers 2000BCE horses enter arena in western Asia, changing the game completely (chariots) Math: used base-60 number system (ours today is a base-10 system)  This is reason for our seconds/minutes we use today

S.P.I.C.E.

1. MESOPOTAMIA

     S : labor for irrigation required large numbers of people; Code of Hammurabi-> law, punishments, society; stratification->kings/priests control most wealth; (1) free (not fundamental, POWs); ag ->women >status lost->men->valuable irrigation/plowing; writing system->complex, requiring scribes P : Sumerians first people of Mesopotamia, 5000BCE; society of villages and cities-> mutual interdependence = “city -state” (villages->surplus food, cities->protection, market, goods); Lugal-> “big men” 3000BCE, origin. army leaders became secular leaders i.e.

Epic of Gilgamesh

(but tended to be non-secular); city -states absorbed others, created large territorial states (i.e. Akkadian state 2350BCE and Ur Dynasty (2112BCE); “Old Babylonian” state -> est. Hammurabi (Law Code) I : cattle-pulled plows by 4000BCE and planter to cultivate barley; irrigation canals built af ter 3000BCE ( nec. for unpredictable weather) C : polytheistic-> anthromorphic; humans servants of gods; temples >walled compounds (ziggurat); common people ->little evidence, thought they believed in magic, possibly to manipulate gods; writing system (cuneiform) use of pictures to rep: political, legal, economic, literary, religious, and scientific texts E : states obtained resources through territorial expansion , long-distance trade; merchants orig. employed by state/temple, 2000BCE private merchants occurred; trade carried out through bar ter

2. EGYPT

     S: large number of people required for labor of pyramids; heterogeneous (light/dark); stratification: (1) king/officials (2) officials, leaders, priests, artisans, $ farmers (3) peasants, majority of population (paid taxes, provided labor); women: had more rights than Mesopotamian women P: divine kingship-> regarded as gods who came to earth to ensure the welfare and prosperity of the people; unified Egyptian state by 3100BCE; bureaucracy important (facilitated land, labor, taxes villages-kingship; very rural; wanted to acquire resources not territory I: climate good for ag, poor rainfall-> nec. for irrigation; regular and high flooding; papyrus used for writing; stepped-pyramid tombs 2630BCE; pyramids constructed using lever, pulley, roller technology; two writing systems (hieroglyphics) C: funeral rites/preservation of body of dead king very important; writing used for secular and religious purposes; foreigner = enemy; religion: polytheistic; temples!; common people believed in magic and afterlife; science->anatomy via mummy, engineering, astronomy, mathematics E: traded: e: grain, copper, turquoise, gold (Nubia), ivory, animals, incense; resources often acquired through trade

3. INDUS VALLEY

 S: ?

 P: origins? Sophisticated urban civ? Harappa and Mohenjo -Daro; 2 may have been city -states  I: sophisticated tech: irrigation (nec. little rainfall); two harvests/yr; 2 cities surrounded by brick walls, had drainage systems; potter’s wheel; bronze metallurgy;  C: identity?; writing system undeciphered;  E: used metal resources; extensive trade connections (even Mesopotamia)

4. CHINA

     S: coordinated effort from large people = ag; S elite were warrior aristocracy; early Z = feudal -like system; women-> subservience; later Z: large armies of conscripted farmers; late Z concept of private property (inclu. land); patriarchy rises (Z) justified by concepts of yin and yang P: Shang: warrior aristocracy; heavenly king ruled directly over core, indirect rule over periphery // Zhou: “ Mandate of Heaven”; regional elites gradually gained more power, ruling their territories as independent states; Z bureaucrats became educated-> admin/advice I: resources: timber, stone, metals; bronze metallurgy (S); chicken/pigs domesticated (S); silk textiles developed (S); S fought w bronze weapons, rode horse-drawn chariots; Z replaced bronze w/ iron and steel in combat C: writing system developed (S), directly related today; S religion: polytheistic, but one supreme god->ancestors of ruler made link (so, heaven/earth connected legitimacy of rule) Z religion: inserted own supreme deity, religion played major role in public/private life; Z feng shui -> maintain harmony; Z late-> confucianism; daoism E: not big traders…

5. NUBIA

 S: Egyptian exploitation of Nubian laborers  P: Kingdom of Meroe; south-> Kingdom of Kush: metalworking and construction; at times practiced matrilineal family system in ruling dynasty (=powerful queens)  I: resources: gold, copper; climate = needed irrigation; Egyptian hieroglyphics, pyramids; reservoirs to catch rainfall   C: imposition of Egyptian culture during Egypt’s New Kingdom era E: used metal resources to trade with Egypt  Heavily influenced by Egypt*

6. MESOAMERICA

 S: clan-based system of labor  P: Olmec and Chavin; C had strong military  I: O used raised fields to provide ag surplus-> sustain urban centers; kingship(?); power rested on control of commodities and religious practices  C: limited tech; architecture still impressive; O played role in development of writing and astronomy  E: trade occurred…

PRIMARY DOCUMENT ANALYSIS: C & C

            Mesopotamia Divine kingship (P) Polytheistic (C) Anthromorphic gods (C) No after life for common people (C) Ramparts/walls burnt brick (I, S) Private property (C) Social order through codified laws (S) Slavery – half value (S) Trade and currency (E) Social hierarchy: State/king(gods)->free man >slaves (S) Men > women (S) Writing –clay tablets (C) Egypt          Divine kingship (P) Polytheistic (C) Magic; After life for common people possible (C) Private property (C) Canal (I) Slavery (S) Social hierarchy – scribes (S) Trade (long-distance), merchants (E) Writing - papyrus (C)

PRIMARY DOCUMENT ANALYSIS: C & C

SO, THE SIMILARITIES (ACCORDING TO THESE TEXTS)…

Divine kingship (P) Polytheistic (C) Private property (C) Slavery (S) Trade (E) Social hierarchy (S) Writing (C)

THE DEVELOPMENT & INTERACTIONS OF EARLY AGRICULTURAL, PASTORAL, AND URBAN SOCIETIES

Key Concept #3

BRONZE AGE



Late Bronze Age in Middle East (And Minoans/Mycenaeans) was a cosmopolitan era, meaning they had shared lifestyles, technologies, and culture that had originated in Mesopotamia and Egypt



Horses

 Domesticated by nomadic peoples in Central Asia ~2000BCE; reached Egypt by way of Zagros Mountains ~1600BCE  Greatly increased speed and distance of communication/trade

BRONZE AGE

 Minoans (Crete)  ~2000BCE; partook in long-distance trade throughout the Aegean Sea; influenced the Ancient Greeks; writing system undeciphered; fell to Mycenaeans ~1450BCE  Mycenaeans (Greek Islands)     ~2000BCE; ~1600 made a sudden rise (assimilated Minoan culture and practices) First advanced civilization in Greece, called “Mycenaean” because Mycenae was the first site excavated Used Linear B , an early form of Greek, which used pictorial signs to represent syllables (Linear B only used for public works accountancy) Aggressive, warlike people; often butted heads with example (~1200BCE) Hittites  Troy an

Bronze Iron

IRON AGE



Iron Age



Many societies entering in Eastern Hemisphere ~1000BCE; advent of iron technology began at different times in different parts of the world



Iron became the primary metal for tools and weapons

 Difference? Harder, sharper edges than bronze (had to be heated at higher temp.)

IRON AGE



Hittites (dominant between 1700-1200BCE)

 Developed iron metallurgy ~1500BCE  Gained wealth from trade in metals and military power (chariots)  Fell to unidentified attackers ~1200BCE 

Hyksos

 “Princes of Foreign Lands”: intermarried w Egyptians, used their language, maintained their institutions and culture  Uncertain how they came to power; possessed superior military tech: chariot and composite bow (greater range and velocity than normal wooden bow)

“DARK AGE”



~1200BCE – Middle East civilizations slip into “Dark Age” of isolation/decline

 ~1000BCE resurgence occurs  Assyrian Empire forms w/ unprecedented size and diversity 

Lesson in Collapse?

 As each of the civilizations fell about the same time, for unknown reasons, one thing is clear: They were civilizations dependent on one another for resources (trade). Also, it is important to note, they were cosmopolitan as a result.



Assyrian Empire

 900-600BCE Assyrians of Mesopotamia created the largest empire the world had yet seen  Tough farmers provided excellent foot-soldiers, could deploy 500k at one pt; superior tech-> spears, bows, chariots, cavalry, iron, towers, battering rams, spies; campaigns provided tribute/taxes, iron and silver resources  King: gods’ earthly representative, church and state belonged to him  Mass deportation (~4m) destroyed religious communities