Transcript Biology EOC Review - Doral Academy Preparatory

Biology EOC Review
Table of Contents
•
•
•
•
•
Goal 1:
Goal 2:
Goal 3:
Goal 4:
Goal 5:
Scientific Method
The Chemistry of Life
Genetics & Heredity
Unity & Diversity of Life
Ecological Relationships
2
Goal 1: Experimental Design
Smithers thinks that a special juice will increase
the productivity of workers. He creates two
groups of 50 workers each and assigns each group
the same task (in this case, they're supposed to
staple a set of papers). Group A is given 1 cup of
the special juice to drink while they work. Group B
is given 1 cup of water. After an hour, Smithers
counts how many stacks of papers each group has
made. Group A made 2,113 stacks, Group B made
1,587 stacks.
3
•
What is Smithers trying to find out?
– Smithers is trying to find out if drinking
the juice will increase the amount of
stapling that can be accomplished.
•
List 3 variables that would have to be
a constant in this experiment.
– Type of juice, amount of juice, types of
staplers, etc.
4
•
Which variable is the independent
variable?
– Juice is the independent variable.
•
Which variable is the dependent
variable?
– Amount of stacks of papers stapled is the
dependent variable.
•
Is this experiment valid? Explain?
– This appears to be a valid experiment.
There is a good sample size, it is controlled
and it tests a single variable.
5
Experimental Design
• Lisa is working on a science project. Her task is
to answer the question: "Does Rogooti (which is
a commercial hair product) affect the speed of
hair growth". She uses her family members for
this experiment and measures each person’s hair
growth each day for a week. Lisa has Bart use
10 mL of the product twice a day and his hair
grows 9 cm. Lisa has Homer use 20 mL of the
product once a day and his hair grows 2 cm. Lisa
has her sister Maggy use 5 mL of the product 4
times a day and her hair grows 12 cm.
• This is an example of an experiment that is not
valid.
6
• a. Describe 3 reasons why this
experiment is not valid.
– Different volumes used, sample size is
small, amount of times used are all
different.
• b. Describe how you would change this
experiment to make it valid.
– Use the same amount of product on every
subject. Increase the number of subjects.
Give it the same number of times each day.
7
Experimental Design
 An experiment was performed to determine
how much fertilizer was needed to produce
the most pumpkins on the vine.
Pumpkin A
Pumpkin B
Pumpkin C
Type of Pumpkin Seed
Jack-O-Lantern
Jack-O-Lantern
Jack-O-Lantern
Amount of Water
given daily (mL)
29.5
29.5
29.5
Amount of Sunlight
Full sunlight
Full sunlight
Full sunlight
Temperature (°C)
23.9
23.9
23.9
Amount of fertilizer
(g)
0
200
300
Type of soil
Organic
Organic
Organic
Day the seeds were
planted
7/8/2007
7/8/2007
7/8/2007
Number of pumpkins
that the vine
produced
3
6
2
8
•
•
•
•
What is the problem?
– Amount of fertilizer needed.
What is the independent variable?
– Amount of fertilizer given.
What is/are the dependent variables?
– Amount of pumpkins produced.
What were/are the constant(s)?
– Type of seed, water, sun, soil type.
9
•
What is the control and why?
– The plants that had no fertilizer because it
would show the effect of fertilizer.
•
How much fertilizer would you use to
grow the most pumpkins?
– 200 grams
10
Experimental Design
• A test was conducted to determine the highest
possible soda geyser when placing Mentos into the
soda.
Soda A
Soda B
Soda C
Soda D
Type of Diet Soda
Diet Coke
Diet Coke
Diet Coke
Diet Coke
Amount of Soda
in the container
(L)
2
2
2
2
Temp of
surroundings (°C)
24
24
24
24
Temp of beverage
(°C)
23.9
23.9
23.9
23.9
Amount of
Mentos given (g)
0
3
6
9
Day the Mentos
were dropped
7/8/2007
7/8/2007
7/8/2007
7/8/2007
Est. height of
soda geyser (cm)
0
250
300
300
11
•
What is the problem and the question in the
above experiment?
– Trying to determine the # of Mentos it takes to
create a geyser in diet soda. How many Mentos does
it take to make the tallest geyser?
•
•
•
What is the independent variable?
– Number of Mentos
What is/are the dependant variable(s)?
– Height of geyser.
What were/are the constant(s)?
– Type of soda, amount of soda, temperature of
surroundings, temperature of beverage, day the
Mentos were dropped.
12
•
•
What is the control and why?
– No Mentos in Soda A. It would show that the geyser
was the result of Mentos.
Using the information above, would you drop 9
Mentos into the diet soda? Explain why or
why not.
– No…..9 Mentos produced the same result as 6
Mentos. It would not make a higher geyser.
13
Goal 2: Chemistry of Life
•
What is an organic compound?
–
•
An organic compound has carbon atoms
bonded to hydrogen. Organic
biomolecules are proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates and nucleic acids.
What is an inorganic compound?
–
Any compound that does not contain
carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen.
14
• CARBOHYDRATES
– Subunits
• monosaccharides are the monomers
– Function
• energy storage – source of quick energy
– Contains which elements out of CHNOPS?
• CHO
– Examples
• Glucose, Sucrose, Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose,
Chitin
15
• LIPIDS
– Subunits
• triglycerides contain 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid
chains; unsaturated fats have C=C double bonds;
saturated fats do not
– Function
• Energy storage; insulation
– Contains which elements out of CHNOPS?
• CHO
– Examples
• Fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids
16
• PROTEINS
– Subunits
• amino acids build polypeptide chains; proteins
are made of one or more polypeptide chains
– Function
• proteins form structure (hair, skin,nails,
hemoglobin) and also function as enzymes
– Contains which elements out of CHNOPS?
• CHNOS
– Examples
• Enzymes such as amylase, sucrase, lactase;
Structure such as keratin, hemoglobin
17
• NUCLEIC ACIDS
– Subunits
• nucleotides (sugar, phosphate and nitrogen
base)
– Function
• carry instructions for the genetic code
– Contains which elements out of CHNOPS?
• CHNOP
– Examples
• DNA, RNA
18
• Explain the function of the
following:
–
–
–
–
–
Starch
• plant polysaccharide; stored energy
Cellulose
• plant polysaccharide that forms cell fibers
Insulin
• hormone that changes blood glucose to glycogen to
be stored in the liver
Glycogen
• polysaccharide in animal cells
Enzymes
• proteins which act as catalysts in living systems
19
– Glucose
• monosaccharide sugar; reactant in cellular
respiration to produce ATP; product of
photosynthesis
– Hemoglobin
• protein molecule in red blood cells that carries
oxygen
– Fats
• stored form of energy in animals; insulation
– DNA
• nucleic acid in chromatin; contains hereditary
info in the sequence of nucleotides
– RNA
• ribonucleic acid made as a transcript of DNA to
code for a specific protein
20
•
Match the test with the organic
molecule
– Test for Lipids
• translucent spot with oil on brown paper
– Test for Simple Sugars
• Benedict’s test (turquoise blue solution turns
orange when heated in the presence of glucose)
– Test for Proteins
• Biuret test turns purple in the presence of
protein
– Test for Starches
• Starch turns blue-black with iodine
21
• List the function and
describe the structure of
the following organelles:
–
–
–
Nucleus
• Spherical structure that contains chromatin
(DNA); therefore the control center of the cell
Plasma membrane
• Phospholipid bilayer that surrounds the cell; it
is selectively permeable
Cell wall
• Rigid structure which surrounds a plant cell or
bacteria or fungi cell (as well as some protists!)
22
– Mitochondria
• Oval structure with highly folded inner membrane;
cellular respiration occurs here to produce ATP
– Vacuoles
• Membrane bound organelles that act as storage for
food or water. Water vacuoles in plant cells are large
and maintain the turgor pressure for the cell.
– Chloroplast
• Membranous organelle where photosynthesis occurs.
– Ribosomes
• Nonmembranous organelle where protein synthesis
occurs both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
23
•
Explain how a compound light
microscope works.
– Magnification through a series of lenses.
Draw the way a lowercase letter “e “
would look under a microscope:
– Upside down and backwards.
•
e
•
How do you determine total
magnification?
– Ocular lens x Objective lens
24
•
List the hierarchy of cell organization
from largest to smallest below
– Organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell,
organelle.
•
How is the structure of the cell
related to its function? Give 2
examples with drawings.
– A nerve cell has long fibers to communicate
with other nerve cells. A sperm cell has a
tail to swim toward the egg.
25
• What is the importance of chemical
signals between cells? Give one
example.
– This allows cells to communicate with each
other, cellular proteins control what enters
and leaves the cell.
– Example: Carrier proteins, blood type
proteins; antigen-antibody reactions.
26
• What is the purpose of receptor
proteins?
– Receptor proteins will receive a molecule
and send a chemical message or allow the
molecule to enter the cell.
• What is the purpose of hormones?
– Hormones are chemical signals that
regulate certain pathways for maintenance
of homeostasis.
27
•
Compare and contrast eukaryotic cells
and prokaryotic cells.
– Prokaryotic cells (Bacteria) have no
organized nucleus or membrane bound
organelles. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus
and membrane bound organelles.
•
Compare and contrast plant cells and
animal cells.
– Plant cells have a cell wall, large water
vacuoles and chloroplasts. Animal cells do
not have cell walls, their vacuoles are small
and they do not have chloroplasts.
28
• List 5 characteristics of living things.
–
–
–
–
–
Organization
Reproduction
Growth and Development
Respond to a Stimulus
Maintain Homeostasis
29
•
What is homeostasis?
–
•
Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a
balance.
What 4 things need to be maintained
when maintaining homeostasis?
–
Temperature, water, pH and nutrients.
30
•
What is salinity?
– Measure of the salt concentration in water.
•
How do cells maintain homeostasis?
– Cells maintain homeostasis with a
selectively permeable membrane.
31
•
Explain why water is important to
cells.
– Water makes up about 75 to 90% of cell
mass. It is a good solvent and a good
temperature regulator as well as transport
agent.
32
• Define
– Active transport
• Ability to move molecules against a concentration
gradient
– Passive transport
• Simple diffusion; movement of molecules with their
concentration gradient (from high to low concentration)
– Diffusion
• Movement of molecules from areas of high concentration
to areas of low concentration
– Osmosis
• Diffusion of water
– Semi-permeable membranes
• AKA plasma membranes; do not allow everything to filter
through
33
•
On the line above the arrow, label
osmosis or diffusion. To the right of
the arrow, draw the end result.
34
diffusion
osmosis
osmosis
35
• Changes in osmotic pressure
– Which direction will the water move?
36
• The water will move to from the right
side of the tube to the left side of the
tube. Water diffuses from areas of
high concentration of water to areas of
low concentration of water. The water
level on the left side of the u tube will
go up.
37
•
What is the main source of energy for
all cells?
– Glucose produced during photosynthesis
•
How do cells store and use energy
(hint- Adenosine…….)
– ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
38
•
What organic molecule is an enzyme?
–
•
Enzymes are proteins
What is the function of an enzyme?
–
•
Acts as a catalyst in a biochemical reaction
Explain the process of an enzyme binding to
the active site of a substrate molecule.
–
–
Enzyme + Substrate → Enzyme-Substrate
Complex → Enzyme + Product(s)
The active site is specific for its substrate.
There are two models (lock-and-key and induced
fit). The active site puts the reactant(s) in
formation for the proper chemical reaction.
39
•
How do temperature and pH affect
enzymes?
– Each enzyme has an optimum temperature and pH
that allow it to be most active. Temperature will
generally speed enzyme action until it denatures
the enzyme protein. pH changes beyond optimum
will modify bonding in the enzyme and cause it to
change shape.
•
Can an enzyme be reused?
– Yes! The enzyme can be used over and over again.
40
•
Is an enzyme specific to a particular
job?
– Yes…i.e. sucrase works on sucrose
•
Draw an enzyme doing a general job
and label the parts.
– See enzyme-substrate complex in your book pg162
41
• Define
– aerobic respiration
• aerobic respiration requires oxygen to be
present; it produces 36-38 molecules of
ATP utilizing the mitochondria membrane
system
– anaerobic respiration
• produces a very small amount of ATP (2);
occurs in the absence of oxygen
42
•
Write the equation for aerobic
respiration
– C6 H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + 36-38 ATP
•
What are the reactants and what are
the products of aerobic respiration?
– Reactants: C6H12O6 + 6O2
– Products: 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36-38 ATP
43
•
Write the equation for anaerobic
respiration:
– C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3 + 2 ATP
– Glucose → Lactic Acid + Energy
•
What are the reactants and what are
the products of anaerobic respiration?
– Reactants: C6H12O6
– Products: 2C3H6O3 + 2 ATP
44
• What is the equation for photosynthesis?
– 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
• What are the reactants of
photosynthesis?
– 6CO2 + 6H2O
• What are the products of
photosynthesis?
– C6H12O6 + 6O2
45
• What organisms carry out aerobic
respiration?
– All living organisms carry out cellular
respiration (even plants) with the exception
of a few anaerobic bacteria.
• What organisms carry out
photosynthesis?
– Plants that have chlorophyll pigment.
46
• What factors affect the rate of
photosynthesis?
–
–
–
–
Temperature
Light
Chlorophyll presence
Concentration of the substrate
47
• What factors affect the rate of
cellular respiration?
– Temperature
– Enzymes
– Concentration of reactants
48
• Which type of cellular respiration
produces the most ATP?
– Aerobic respiration produces about 36
more ATP than anaerobic respiration.
49
• Name and explain the two types of
anaerobic respiration.
– Alcoholic fermentation produces a net of 2
ATP from the breakdown of glucose
through glycolysis and then pyruvate forms
alcohol.
– Lactic acid fermentation occurs in muscle
tissue when oxygen supply is low. It
produces lactic acid and 2 ATP.
50
Goal 3: Genetics & Heredity
• Compare and contrast the structure of
DNA with that of RNA.
– DNA is double stranded and has
deoxyribose and thymine
– RNA is single stranded and has ribose sugar
and uracil
51
• Where is the DNA located within a
prokaryotic cell?
– Not within a nucleus…exists as a nucleoid
with chromosome and circular plasmids
• Within a eukaryotic cell?
– DNA is in chromosomes within the nucleus
52
• Name the nitrogen bases found in DNA
and what they bond to.
– Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine
– A-T & G-C
• Name the nitrogen bases found in RNA
and what they bond to.
– Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, and Cytosine
– A-U & G-C
53
• Why is the sequence of nucleotides so
important?
– The sequence of bases determines the
sequence that amino acids are placed in to
make a specific type of polypeptide.
54
• Describe the process of DNA
replication.
– DNA replication is semiconservative. The
double helix unwinds and exposes nitrogen
bases which complementary bases will come
in and pair opposite the regular strand.
Each new DNA molecule is half the original
helix and half new helix.
55
• What is a mutation?
– A mutation occurs when there is a problem
with the sequence of nitrogen bases to
make any type of protein.
– Point Mutations
– Frame-shift Mutations
56
• Where does DNA replication occur
during the cell cycle?
– During the S (synthesis) phase of the cell
cycle.
• Why are there hydrogen bonds between
each nitrogen base?
– These hydrogen bonds are weak. They are
formed easily and given up easily. This
allows base pairs to form during replication
and transcription.
57
• Describe the process of transcription
and where it occurs.
– Transcription occurs in the nucleus. The
coding strand of DNA acts as a template
for RNA synthesis.
58
• Describe the process of translation and
where it occurs.
– Translation occurs at the ribosome of cells.
mRNA moves from the nucleus to the
ribosome. tRNA carries a specific amino
acid to the mRNA on the ribosome. As the
amino acids are put in place, they form
peptide bonds with each other. The new
protein strand leaves the nucleus.
59
• Explain gene expression.
– A gene is a portion of a DNA molecule that
codes for one polypeptide chain or one
protein.
– Gene expression means that the protein is
synthesized so that the character is
evident.
60
• Explain cell differentiation.
– Even though all cells in an individual have
the same DNA, only certain portions that
the cell needs to function will be
transcribed so that cells become different
in appearance and function from cells of
other tissue types.
61
• What are the disadvantages to cell
differentiation?
– The advantage of cellular differentiation is
that there are special cells for special
functions. Nerve cells have long fibers for
communication. Blood cells are specialized
to carry oxygen.
62
• Compare and contrast mitosis and
meiosis.
– Mitosis is the division of the replicated
contents of the nucleus of somatic cells
such that new cells formed will be exactly
like the parent cell.
– Meiosis is the formation of gametes (egg
and sperm) with only half of the
chromosome number.
63
• Be able to put pictures of cells in
various stages of the cell cycle in
order….IPMATC
64
• Define
– Diploid
• Complete set of chromosomes; the number of
chromosomes in all body cells with the exception
of gametes. 2n
• In humans, 46
– Haploid
• Half set of chromosomes; the number of
chromosomes in all mature sex cells. n
• In humans, 23
65
• What is crossing over?
– Crossing over is the exchange of
genetic information between
homologous pairs of chromosomes.
• When does crossing over
occur?
– Crossing over occurs during
Prophase I of Meiosis I.
66
• What is the benefit of crossing
over?
– The benefit of crossing over is to increase
variation in the gametes. This helps
survival in the population as multiple
combinations of alleles occurs with a
greater chance that one change in the
environment will not eliminate the entire
species.
67
• What is the law of independent
assortment?
– The gametes will not always contain the
same member of the homologous pair of
chromosomes.
– http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/indepe
ndentassortment.html
• How does it increase variation?
– All the gametes are going to be different
from each other.
68
• What is nondisjunction?
– Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous
chromosome pairs to separate during
anaphase I of meiosis. This results in
gametes having more or less chromosomes
than they are supposed to have.
69
• Draw nondisjunction.
70
• How does nondisjunction result in
variation?
– http://www.biostudio.com/d_%20Meiotic%20Nondisjunction
%20Meiosis%20I.htm
71
• Define:
– Dominant
• allele in a pair that is expressed
– Recessive
• allele in a pair that is not expressed unless both alleles
are recessive
– Homozygous
• RR or rr, for example; both alleles are the same
– Heterozygous
• Rr, for example; alleles are different
– Genotype
• Representation of the genes….Rr is a genotype
– Phenotype
• The appearance of a genotype (round, green, etc.)
72
• What 2 things is phenotype the result
of?
– The phenotype is the result of the genes
and the environment.
73
• In a genetics laboratory, two
heterozygous tall plants were crossed.
If tall is domiannt over short, what are
the expected phenotypic results?
– Tt x Tt
– 75% tall and 25% short
74
• If one homozygous short plant is
crossed with a heterozygous tall plant,
what percentage of the offspring will be
short?
– Tt x tt
– 50%
75
• What are the genotypes of the parents
that would produce 25% short and 75%
tall plants?
– Tt x Tt
76
• What are the genotypes of the parents
that would produce 50% short and 50%
tall pea plants?
– Tt x tt
77
• Look at the karyotype pictured in your
review packet, on question #79. What
can you state about this individual?
– This individual has trisomy-21 or Down
Syndrome.
78
• Explain the characteristics of the
following:
– Colorblindness
• sex-linked trait; disorder is more common in males than in
females.
– Huntington’s disease
• autosomal dominant trait which is not expressed until 40’s
to 50’s.
– Cystic fibrosis
• Autosomal recessive trait.
– Sickle cell
• Autosomal recessive trait; Heterozygote has resistance
to malaria.
– Hemophilia
• sex-linked trait with inability to clot blood properly.
79
Sample incomplete dominance
question
• When red and white flowers are
crossed, pink flowers are produced.
What is expected when two pink flowers
cross?
– The phenotypes of the offspring are
expected to be 1:2:1 for red:pink:white
80
Blood type (multiple allele,
codominant)
• Mr. Jones has blood type A and Mrs.
Jones has blood type AB. What is the
probability that they will have a child
with blood type A if both of Mr. Jones’
parents were AB?
– AA x AB
– 50%
81
• Is it possible for a male with blood type
A to have a child of blood type O with a
female whose blood type is B?
– Yes…..if both parents are heterozygous…
– AO x BO
82
• Why are males more likely to express a
sex linked trait?
– There is nothing on the y chromosome to be
a dominant allele over the recessive allele
on the x chromosome. Females have an
opportunity to have a dominant trait on the
other x chromosome.
83
Sample sex-linked trait
•
Colorblindness is a sex linked recessive
trait. A mother with normal color
vision and a color blind father have a
color blind daughter. Which of the
following statements is correct?
A.
B.
C.
D.
All of their daughters will be colorblind.
The mother is a carrier of the color blindness gene.
All of their sons will have normal color vision.
All of their sons will be color blind.
84
Sample test cross question
•
Black color is dominant over white in
rats. In order to determine whether a
black rat is homozygous or
heterozygous for the color trait, the
rat should go through a test or back
cross. That means that the black rat
would be mated to a
A.
B.
C.
D.
Heterozygous black rat
Hybrid white rate
White rat.
Homozygous black rat
85
• In a pedigree, an open circle indicates
that the person is a female and the
solid square indicates that the person is
male with the trait.
86
Look at pedigree on question 87.
• What is the genotype of individual I-1?
– Homozygous recessive
• What is the genotype of II-4?
– Heterozygous
• If someone with the genotype similar to II-7
had children with someone with the same
genotype as III-3, what are the chances that
their children will be affected?
– 100%
87
• What is a polygenic trait?
– A polygenic trait is one where there are
several genes for the trait, such as skin
color where there is a range of color from
very light to very dark.
– aabbcc to AABBCC
88
• What were the reasons for establishing
the human genome project?
– To determine the sequence of the human
genome……to possibly offer gene therapy
for disease.
89
• How has the human genome project
benefited humans?
– Determination of genetic markers for
disease; production of human insulin via
recombinant DNA in bacteria.
90
How can DNA technology allow us to:
– A. Identify an individual?
• DNA fingerprint
– B. Identify a person’s parents?
• DNA fingerprint in comparison with parents.
– C. Investigate a crime scene?
• DNA fingerprint of suspect in comparison to sample left
at crime scene.
What is an amniocentesis?
• Puncture of the amniotic sac surrounding a fetus to obtain fetal
cells in the amniotic fluid. Cells are cultured and a karyotype
demonstrates the fetal chromosomes.
91
• What is a transgenic organism and give
an example…….
– A transgenic organism is created by
recombination of DNA from two different
species. An example would be a bacteria
cell that has had human insulin DNA
inserted into its plasmid.
92
• What is cloning?
– Cloning is making an exact copy of an
organism using an insertion of a somatic cell
nucleus into the egg cell of the surrogate
mother. The resultant zygote will have the
same exact genome as the donor of the
somatic cell.
93
• What is gel electrophoresis?
– Protein or DNA samples are placed in wells and
then subjected to an electric current. The
molecules will separate according to their weight
and leave characteristic fingerprints across a gel
medium.
94
Question 95 in packet
• Which suspect committed the crime?
– Suspect 3 because the bands match the
criminal blood found at the scene of the
crime.
95
• What are some ethical implications and
dangers of biotechnology?
– Dangers include the creation of organisms which
have no natural predator and a potential imbalance
in the ecosystem, moral implications of creating
clones of humans, release of information about
genetic markers for disease to employers or
insurance companies.
96
• Contrast abiogenesis and biogenesis
with experiments to support both.
– Abiogenesis is the same as spontaneous generation. There is really
no experimental evidence to support spontaneous generation, or the
formation of life from something that is nonliving, other than early
observations before technology was available to demonstrate
otherwise.
– Biogenesis means life coming from something that is alive. Redi and
Pasteur proved biogenesis with the fly experiment with the jars of
rotting meat. No flies appeared on the meat that had been covered
with net. Air was able to get in but not the flies and no eggs were
laid on the meat and no maggots appeared on the meat. Pasteur’s
crooked necked flasks demonstrated that microbes in the air were
trapped in the curve of the neck of the flask. When the broth
came in contact with this area, the broth became cloudy,
demonstrating that the microbes had the nutrients to be able to
grow and reproduce in the broth.
97
• What did Louis Pasteur contribute to
our understanding of the origins of life?
– See previous answer regarding the crooked
neck flasks.
98
• What can we infer from the fossil
record?
– Gradual evolution of new species forms. Extinction
of some forms. Similarities and differences of
ancestral species to recent forms.
• Where do you find the oldest/youngest
fossils?
– Oldest forms are going to be in the lowest rock
layers of sedimentary rock and the youngest
fossils are going to be in the top layers.
99
• What was the Earth’s early atmosphere
made up of?
– Water vapor, ammonia, methane and
hydrogen gases.
100
• What were the first living organisms to
live on earth?
– Anaerobic bacteria
• How did they obtain energy?
– They were heterotrophs….they fed on
organic molecules in the ocean.
101
• How did the first living organisms
evolve?
– The first life forms may have been
prokaryotes that evolved from protocells
(large organized structures surrounded by
a membrane).
102
• Explain how biochemical similarities
support evolution.
– If DNA is the only molecule that passes
from generation to generation, the
products of DNA (proteins) are going to be
similar in organisms that have a common
ancestor.
103
• Explain how anatomical similarities
support evolution.
– Similarly, common anatomy is coded for by
similar sequences of DNA from common
ancestors.
104
• Define natural selection.
– This is the theory developed by Darwin and
Wallace. Organisms will produce more
organisms than can possibly survive, there
is a struggle for existence with those
organisms best adapted for survival able to
survive and reproduce more like
themselves. “Survival of the Fittest”
105
• How are variation and natural selection
related?
– Variation in the gene pool allows us to
understand that within any population some
will be better adapted for survival and
some less better adapted. The frequency
of the genes that code for traits that have
a selective advantage will increase in the
population.
106
• Describe coevolution and give an
example.
– Coevolution is when two different and
unrelated organisms both evolve structures
which allow them to be mutually successful.
An example is insect pollinators and
flowers. The insects have mouthparts to
collect nectar and carry pollen on their
bodies and the flowers produce nectar for
the insects.
107
• What is geographic isolation?
– Geographic isolation is when portions of
populations become separated via some geographic
barrier (river, ocean, canyon, etc.). The separated
populations will create independent gene pools and
may eventually become different enough
genetically that even if reunited with the original
population, mating will not occur and a new species
has been formed.
108
• What is reproductive isolation?
– Reproductive isolation occurs when populations
become increasingly different from each other
such that even if organisms previously mated with
each other and produced fertile offspring, they
are no longer able to do so. Geographic isolation
leads to reproductive isolation.
109
• Describe Charles Darwin’s theory of
natural selection.
– Organisms produce more than can possibly survive.
– Populations tend to be stable.
– There is a struggle for existence. There is
variation within populations.
– Survival of the fittest.
– Survivors will reproduce more like themselves and
the frequency of the other variants decreases.
110
• Describe how the following are related
to natural selection.
– 1. pesticide resistance
– 2. antibiotic resistance
• In both cases, initial use of a pesticide or an antibiotic
will kill the weakest in the population. The stronger
organisms will survive to reproduce. Eventually the
population will be made up of the strongest or most
resistant organisms. This is natural selection.
111
Goal 4: Unity & Diversity
• How does our modern classification
system show the evolutionary
relationship among organisms?
– Taxonomists consider the genetic makeup
of organisms to reveal their evolutionary
relationships to other organisms.
112
• Originally, how many kingdoms were
there? Why?
– Originally there were two kingdoms….plant
and animal…..Organisms were placed in
either of these two kingdoms based on
general differences.
113
• List the 7 levels of classification from
largest to smallest.
– KPCOFGS
– Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family,
Genus, Species
114
• Bacteria
– pro/eu
auto/hetero uni/multi
• Protists
– pro/eu
auto/hetero
uni/multi
auto/hetero
uni/multi
auto/hetero
uni/multi
• Plants
– pro/eu
• Animals
– pro/eu
115
Dichotomous Key See question 116
• 1a the animal has 8 legs…..Arachnida
• b the animals has 6 legs….Go to 2
• 2a the animal has spots……..Coleoptera
• b the animal has stripes…..Lepisiota
– A = Arachnida B= Coleoptera C= Lepisiota
116
Question #117
• Which would be the most primitive
organism on the cladogram?
– The most primitive organism on the
cladogram would be the one ray-finned fish.
117
• What two organisms would have the
most similar DNA?
– Crocodiles and birds
• Why did you choose these two
organisms?
– They have the most common ancestral
branches. On the EOC this would be a
multiple choice question.
118
BACTERIA
• Reproduction
– Usually asexual (binary fission), however may reproduce
sexually by exchange of DNA.
• How they Eat
– Varies with the species….Some are decomposers, some are
autotrophic (make their own food), some are heterotrophic
(rely on others for food).
• How they regulate their internal environment
– Bacteria are single celled organisms and are subject to
environmental conditions. They do produce endospores when
environmental conditions are poor (temperature, chemicals,
water) that allow them to survive until the environmental
conditions improve. Metabolism is controlled by enzymes.
Most bacteria are aerobic but some are anaerobic.
119
PROTISTS (protozoans like amoeba and paramecium,
sporozoans like Malaria, plant-like protists like algae and Euglena)
• Reproduction
– May reproduce both asexually and sexually. Algae
demonstrate alternation of generations between sporophyte
and gametophyte generations. Parasitic protists (like malaria
Plasmodium) have advanced reproductive capabilities within
their host.
• How they eat
– Some are heterotrophic, some are autotrophic and some are
parasitic. They are also some protists that act as
decomposers (slime molds, water molds, downy mildews).
• How they regulate their internal environment
– Protists are more advanced than bacteria in this
regard….Paramecia have mechanisms to balance water
(contractile vacuole). Photosynthetic protists need to be
able to seek light.
120
NONVASCULAR PLANTS
(MOSSES)
• Reproduction
– Moss plants reproduce in an alternation of generations. The
sporophyte generation produces spores which germinate to produce
gametophytes which then produce gametes. Fertilization of a
gamete produces a zygote which will develop into a sporophyte.
• How they eat
– Moss plants are nonvascular plants and obtain water by diffusion.
This also limits their size. Moss plants are photosynthetic and
therefore they make their own food.
• HOW THEY REGULATE THEIR INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
– Moss plants do have stomates to regulate water loss and gas
exchange.
121
GYMNOSPERMS (pine trees,
juniper trees)
• HOW THEY REPRODUCE
– Pine trees have male pollen cones and female cones. The pollen is
airborne and will stick on the sticky female cones. Seeds of
conifers develop at the base of each woody scale of female cones
and have wings to drift away from the parent plant once the cone
opens. There is no fruit covering the seed and thus gymnosperms
are “naked seed” plants.
• HOW THEY EAT
– Gymnosperms are photosynthetic plants and thus they make their
own food.
• HOW THEY REGULATE THEIR INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
– The shape of the tree helps the tree to shed snow. The leaves are
needle-shaped and waxy so that they do not lose water from winter
drying. The leaves are evergreen so that they can carry on
photosynthesis whenever possible during the year...
122
ANGIOSPERMS
• REPRODUCTION
– Produce flowers and fruits. Angiosperms have seeds covered with
some type of fleshy ovary. Double fertilization produces an embryo
plus a food source within the seed. Pollination strategies attract
insect/bird pollinators. Seed dispersal techniques spread seeds
for germination away from the parent plant.
• HOW THEY EAT
– Angiosperms are plants and therefore obtain their food via
photosynthesis. They are vascular plants and therefore can absorb
water and nutrients via roots in the soil.
• REGULATION OF INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
– Stomates control water loss from the leaves via transpiration.
Plant hormones control flowering response and bending of stems
towards light by differential growth of the stem.
123
• Explain the feeding adaptations of
animals.
– Animals are adapted to be herbivores, carnivores
or omnivores. Teeth structure, mouth parts,
digestive enzymes and perhaps symbiotic gut
organisms to aid in digestion will be a part of
adaptations to be successful feeders.
124
• What are the reproductive adaptations
that offered the most success to
animals?
– Behavioral adaptations for mate
recognition, increased parental care for
young, balance of amount of eggs/sperm
produced with success of fertilization.
Greater protection and nutrition of
developing egg….amniote egg.
125
• What are the reproductive adaptations
that offer the most success to plants?
– Pollination coevolution, protected seed in
angiosperms, techniques for seed dispersal,
evolution of flowering plants. Pollen tube
fertilization process in angiosperms.
126
• Are viruses living or nonliving? Explain.
– As humans, we like to classify things because it helps us
understand the physical world. Viruses must have a host cell
to live and reproduce. Outside of the host cell, viruses are
pieces of genetic molecules that can do nothing by
themselves. Viruses are right on the border between living
and nonliving. Some biologists currently see the virus as a
nonliving infectious particle. Other biologists disagree and
suggest they are alive because of what happens inside the
host cell.
127
• Compare and contrast viruses and bacteria in
regard to their structure.
128
• How can someone get:
• Influenza
virus/bacteria?
• HIV
virus/bacteria?
• Streptococcus
virus/bacteria?
• Small Pox
virus/bacteria?
Virus
Virus
Bacteria
Virus
129
• Compare and contrast mimicry and
camouflage.
– Camouflage and mimicry are adaptations some
animals use as protection from predators. An
animal that uses camouflage looks like things in its
environment. It might look like a leaf, a twig, or a
rock. Animals that use mimicry use colors and
markings to look like another animal.
130
• How do each of the following help plants
to survive?
• Phototropism
– allows plants to grow towards light to capture
sunlight for photosynthesis.
• Gravitropism
– allows plants to have roots growing downward to
seek water.
• Thigmotropism
– allows plants to grow attached to something they
contact for support of stems to seek sunlight for
photosynthesis.
131
• What are some adaptations that allow
plants to survive on land as compared to
water?
– Angiosperms have fertilization via pollen
tubes to reach ovum and so sperm do not
need to have water to swim in. Plants also
have vascular tissues which transport water
from one part of the plant to another.
Plants also have a waxy cuticle on leaves to
prevent drying out.
132
• What are some adaptations that allow
animals to survive on land as compared
to water?
– Amniote egg with a shell protects
developing embryo with a food source and
fluid. Lung structures for gas exchange as
opposed to gills. Protective keratin on skin
to prevent drying out.
133
• Describe how genetics and environment
affect:
• Malnutrition (both obesity and undernourishment)
– Genetics may determine metabolism tendency. Level of
absorption of nutrients may be genetically determined. Free
will and behavior may control eating tendencies.
• Diabetes
– Genetics may increase tendency toward inability of cells to
recognize or produce insulin. Dietary behavior may influence
metabolism. Pancreatic viruses may decrease ability of the
pancreas to produce insulin.
• Lung cancer
– May inherit tendency toward lung cancer. Environmental
influence may be tars from cigarette smoking, exposure to
secondary smoke, exposure to asbestos.
134
• Skin cancer
– Decreased melanin production is genetically determined.
Environmental would be exposure of skin to UV light which
would act as a mutagen.
• PKU
– Patients inherit recessive gene for PKU. Exposure to
phenylalanine in diet is environmental.
• Vitamin D
– Skin will produce vitamin D with exposure to sunlight. A
decreased exposure to sunlight will decrease level of vitamin
D produced.
• Folic Acid
– Helps prevent neural tube defects in embryos.
135
• Describe what causes:
• Mercury poisoning
– Mercury poisoning can be caused by any number of methods of exposure. Amalgam
dental fillings are a main cause, other causes are eating fish that have been
exposed to mercury in the environment, industrial and work place exposures such as
those in the paint industry, even in the hospital (and home) setting poses a potential
threat to mercury poisoning because of the mercury in thermometers, dropping or
somehow breaking a single thermometer is a very hazardous situation even without
touching the mercury because of the vapors produced by the mercury.
Some other sources of mercury are cosmetics. There have been several cases of
mercury poisoning in the south western states by a company that sold a beauty
cream with "calomel" listed as an ingredient. Calomel is mercurous chloride (HgCl2).
This product had mercury levels around 10%.
• Lead poisoning
– Lead poisoning is usually caused by months or years of exposure to small
amounts of lead at home, work, or day care. It can also happen very quickly
with exposure to high concentrations. The most common source of lead
exposure for children is lead-based paint and dust and soil that are
contaminated by it.
136
• Describe the general life cycle of a
parasite.
137
• What are T cells?
– The T cells are specialized white blood
cells (lymphocytes) who act like soldiers to
search out and destroy the targeted
invaders (viruses and bacteria)
138
• What are B cells?
– B cells are a type of white blood cell (called
a b-lymphocyte) that produce antibodies.
Antibodies react with antigens (virus
particles or bacterial cells).
139
• How are vaccines used to keep people
healthy?
– A vaccine is a substance consisting of
weakened, dead or incomplete portions of
pathogens or antigens that when injected
into the body cause an immune response.
Vaccines produce immunity because they
prompt the body to react as if it were
naturally infected.
140
• Define the following innate behaviors:
– Phototaxis
• Movement of a cell or organism towards (positive phototaxis) or
away from a source of light (negative phototaxis).
– Migration
• Seasonal movement to an area for breeding.
– Hibernation
• Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in
animals, characterized by lower body temperature, slower
breathing, and lower metabolic rate. Hibernating animals
conserve energy, especially during winter when food is short,
tapping energy reserves, body fat, at a slow rate.
– Estivation
• A temporary state of inactivity during a time that the animal is
usually active. An example of estivation may be snails that go
into a dormant state in summer months if it is too hot or too
dry.
– Instinct (suckling)
• An instinct is a complex pattern of innate behavior. Instinctive
behavior begins when the animal recognizes a stimulus and
continues until all parts of the behavior have been performed. 141
• Define the following learned behaviors
– Imprinting
• An animal learns the characteristics of its parent. Lorenz demonstrated
how incubator-hatched geese would imprint on the first suitable moving
stimulus they saw within what he called a "critical period" between 13-16
hours shortly after hatching.
– Conditioning
• Classical Conditioning is the type of learning made famous by Pavlov's
experiments with dogs. The gist of the experiment is this: Pavlov presented
dogs with food, and measured their salivary response (how much they
drooled). Then he began ringing a bell just before presenting the food. At
first, the dogs did not begin salivating until the food was presented. After a
while, however, the dogs began to salivate when the sound of the bell was
presented. They learned to associate the sound of the bell with the
presentation of the food. As far as their immediate physiological responses
were concerned, the sound of the bell became equivalent to the presentation
of the food.
– Habituation
• a reduction in a previously-displayed response when no reward or punishment
follows
– Trial and error
• A person learns by trial and error if he occasionally tries out new strategies,
rejecting choices that are erroneous in the sense that they do not lead to142
higher payoffs.
• Define the following social behaviors:
– Courtship
• Animal activity that results in mating and reproduction.
Courtship may simply involve a few chemical, visual, or auditory
stimuli, or it may be a highly complex series of acts by two or
more individuals using several modes of communication.
– Communication
• responding to a stimulus via sight, smell, hearing,
electrocommunication.
– Territoriality
• Territoriality is a type of intraspecific or interspecific
competition that results from the behavioral exclusion of others
from a specific space that is defended as territory. This welldefined behavior is exhibited through songs and calls,
intimidation behavior, attack and chase, and marking with
scents. The benefits would be nutritional or reproductive.
143
• Explain how certain animal behaviors
such as courtship and other behaviors
may have evolved.
– Evolution of animal behaviors was probably
because the behavior gave a selective
advantage for the animal to survive.
144
Goal 5: Ecological Relationships
• Explain the difference between biotic
and abiotic factors.
– Biotic factors are the living factors in the
ecosystem (predators, prey, all organisms
of the food chain or web).
145
• How do limiting factors affect carrying
capacity?
– A population will continue to grow until the
limiting factor in the lowest amount runs
out. (space, food supply, etc.)
146
• Define these types of symbiotic
relationships:
– Mutualism
• Both organisms benefit
– Commensalism
• One benefits and the other is not affected
– Parasitism
• One benefits and the other is harmed
– Predator-Prey
• One benefits and the other is consumed
– Competition
• Struggle for existence means that organisms will compete for
space, mates, food. Those that are best adapted will
survive to reproduce more like themselves.
147
• Define and give an example of:
– Density dependent limiting factor
• A limiting factor that is dependent upon the
size of the population (disease, food supply)
– Density independent limiting factor
• A limiting factor that will occur regardless of
the size of the population (weather, natural
disasters)
148
• What is carrying capacity?
– Carrying capacity is the top limit of what an
ecosystem can support due to limiting
factors.
149
• Describe the carbon cycle.
– Photosynthesis produces organic carbon as
glucose. All organisms consume glucose and
convert it to carbon dioxide in cellular
respiration. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by
plants during photosynthesis.
150
• How can humans influence cycling with:
– Deforestation
• Deforestation is a decrease in the amount of
trees in the forests due to cutting, fires, etc.
This will decrease the amount of CO2 absorbed.
– Factories
• Factories produce carbon waste and CO2 which
would be added to the atmosphere.
151
• How does photosynthesis relate to
energy getting into ecosystems?
– Producers who photosynthesize take the
sun’s energy and convert it to chemical
bond energy in glucose. Consumers will
consume and break out the chemical bond
energy via cellular respiration.
152
• What role do decomposers play in the
environment?
– Decomposers such as bacteria and fungi will
break down the carbon-based organic
molecules and return them to the soil.
Plants will use them.
153
• What is a trophic level?
– A trophic level is a feeding level in a food
web. Producers, primary consumers,
secondary consumers are all trophic levels.
154
• What is a food chain?
– A food chain shows one line of feeding
relationship from
– Producer  Primary Consumer 
Secondary Consumer
155
• Draw a food chain including a heron,
minnows and plankton.
– Plankton  Minnows  Heron
156
• What happens to energy in an
ecosystem?
– Energy is initially in the form of light
energy from the sun which is changed to
chemical bond energy during
photosynthesis. It is then released as heat
energy at the different trophic levels as it
is consumed.
157
• What happens to nutrients in an
ecosystem (biomass)?
– The number of nutrients or biomass
decreases as one moves up the trophic
levels in a pyramid.
158
• What happens to numbers of organisms
in an ecosystem?
– The numbers of organisms decrease as you
move up the trophic levels. Producers have
the largest number and the secondary
consumers have the lowest number.
159
• How much energy is passed from one
trophic level to the next in an
ecosystem? What happens to the rest?
– As one moves up the energy pyramid, only
10% of the energy of the previous trophic
level is available to the next level. 90% of
it is lost as heat to the environment.
160
• What is a food web?
– A food web shows all the possible feeding
relationships in a community.
161
• How has an increased human population
impacted acid rain production, habitat
destruction and the introduction of nonnative (exotic) species?
– An increased human population has
increased acid rain production, habitat
destruction and introduction of exotic
species.
162
• What is global warming? What causes
it?
– Global warming is an increase in the
climate’s average temperature. This may
be a natural cycle or a result of increased
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere or a
combination of both.
163
• What are the possible effects of global
warming?
– Loss of habitat, raise in ocean levels from
melting ice flows, effect of temperature as
an abiotic factor.
164
• What are some ways that carbon
dioxide emissions can be reduced?
– More efficient fuel usage, better
engineering of cars, decreased factory
emissions. Hybrid vehicles or electric cars.
165
• What are some factors that influence
birth/death rates in the human
population?
– Increase in birth rates due to lack of birth
control procedures and better prenatal
care, decrease in death rates due to longer
survival with better medical care.
166
• What effects would the following have
on the environment?
–
–
–
–
Human population size?
Human population density?
Resource use?
Pesticide use?
If all of these were increased then it would
have a negative impact on natural resources
in the environment.
167
• What effect can a buildup of pesticides
have on the environment over a long
term? (bioaccumulation or
bioamplification)
– The top level food chain members would be
damaged as these chemical increase in
concentration in tissues as you move up the
food chain.
168
• What effect can pesticides have on
organisms they weren’t intended to
affect?
– They may be toxic or cause mutagenic
effects in other organisms.
169
• What is pesticide resistance? What are
the long term effects?
– Pesticide resistance means that the pest
will survive. In any population of pests
some will be resistant. They will survive
and reproduce more like themselves and
then the pesticide will be useless on that
population.
170
• What are some biologic alternatives to
chemical pesticides? What are the
pros and cons?
– Biologic control with natural predators. It
may be more of an expense and it may also
throw off the ecosystem balance by
introduction of a predator.
171
• What is DDT and what is its effect on
the ecosystem?
– Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane
• In 1962, Silent Spring by American biologist Rachel Carson was
published. The book catalogued the environmental impacts of the
indiscriminate spraying of DDT in the US and questioned the
logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into the
environment without fully understanding their effects on
ecology or human health. The book suggested that DDT and
other pesticides may cause cancer and that their agricultural
use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds.
172
System Functions
– Body covering (skin)
• protection, temperature regulation (sweating), vitamin D
production
– Cardiovascular
• Moves blood through the body as a transport agent for nutrients
and oxygen as well as wastes.
– Digestive
• Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients. Food is used for
energy production.
– Endocrine
• Produces hormones that regulate body chemistry.
– Excretory
• Regulates water level and rids the body of nitrogenous
waste.
– Immune
• Produces antibodies and lymphocytes to fight against
disease.
173
– Nervous
• Helps body respond to stimuli.
– Muscular
• Movement – both voluntary and involuntary.
– Reproductive
• Perpetuation of the species!
– Respiratory
• Brings in oxygen for cellular respiration and removes carbon
dioxide.
– Skeletal
• Bony structures for support, protection and movement. Red
bone marrow makes new red blood cells.
174
Biologists
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Robert Hooke – discovered and named the cell with crude microscope
Anton van Leeuwenhoek - saw “wee little beasties” living cells for the first time
Gregor Mendel – is the father of genetics – discovered the basic patterns of
inheritance in pea plants
Charles Darwin – is the father of evolution theory – proposed that organisms
that are most fit or best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive
– called Natural Selection
James Watson and Francis Crick – discovered the double helix structure of DNA
by examining an x-ray made by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
Charles Drew – associated with our understanding of the ABO blood groups and
transfusion
Carolus Linnaeus – binomial nomenclature and classification of organisms
Rachel Carson – wrote “Silent Spring” bringing to public attention the dangers of
pesticides particularly DDT – this toxin bioaccumulates in the bodies of top
consumers
Jane Goodall – studied chimpanzee behavior
Louis Pasteur – helped disprove abiogenesis or spontaneous generation by creating
a s-neck flask and showing that microorganisms spoil food
175
THE END
176