Transcript Victimization Theories - Cooley, Wilson Hall, Sociology Lab

Victimization Theories
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Victim Precipitation
Life Style
RAT
“Crime Victim”
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The term "crime victim" generally refers to any
person or group who has suffered injury or
loss due to illegal activity
The harm can be physical, psychological, or
economic
Victimization Theories
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What makes someone a victim? Look at
criminal-victim dyad
Victim as agent provocateur
Victim characteristics contribute to
victimization
Situational context
Spatial characteristics
Can we decrease our chances of being
victimized?
Victimization and situational setting
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Individual behavior is a product of an
interaction between the person and the
setting
Most criminological theories pay attention
only to the first, asking why certain people
might be more criminally inclined or less so
This neglects the important features of
social setting
Benjamin Mendelsohn (1956)
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Father of victimology – coined term victimology
Discovered strong relationship between
victimization and social setting
Classification based on legal considerations of
the degree of the victim’s blame
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1. completely innocent (being in the wrong place at
the wrong time)
2. victims with minor guilt/due to ignorance
3. victim as guilty as offender/voluntary victim
Victim Precipitation
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The degree to which victim is responsible for own
victimization
Wolfgang (1958): first to empirically investigate
victim precipitation
Investigated homicides in Philly from 1948-1952
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Common factors:
1. Often victim and offender know each other
2. Alcohol plays role
3. Incident often escalates from minor altercation to
murder
Victim Precipitation
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60% of cases where women killed their
husbands as victim precipitated
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9% of incidents where men killed their
wives as victim precipitated
Wolfgang’s Study
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Victim was “the first to slap, punch,
stab..”
The prevalence of victim precipitation
in murder and assault is contrary to the
popular image victims as totally
innocent
Victim Precipitation and Homicide
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Interpersonal dispute is a dominant
characteristic of many homicides
Five stages of escalation for typical
homicide
1. Victim makes a direct offensive verbal
attack against the offender (40 % of
victims initiate the homicide drama by
verbal threat)
Victim Precipitation and Homicide
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2. The offender interprets the victim’s words
and deeds as offensive
3. The offender makes the opening to “pay
back” the victim for the previous insult
4. The eventual victim “stands up” to the
offender’s opening, responding with
increased hostility
Victim Precipitation and Homicide
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5. Commitment to battles ensues, the victim
is left dead or dying (35% of offenders carry
gun or knives, and nearly 65% leave the
crime scene to obtain weapons)
Amir’s analysis or rape
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Police records on rape incidents in Philly from
1958-1960
19% of all forcible rapes were victimprecipitated
Factors: alcohol, seductive actions by victim,
wearing revealing clothing, using risque
language, bad reputation
Offender’s interpretation of actions is what is
important – not what victim actually does
Provocative dress - active
precipitation
Female victims
contribute to their
attacks by provocative
dressing/behavior
Do you believe in victim precipitation?
Passive Precipitation
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Occurs when the victim exhibits some
personal characteristic that either
threaten or encourages the attacker
Related to power
Group of immigrants arriving to the
community and compete for job
Love interest, promotion
Problems with Victim Precipitation
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Assumption that behavior of victim can
explain criminal act
Responsibility Placed on Victim
Creates Culturally Legitimate Victim
Excuses Offenders Behavior
Victimology Today
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Aim to search for the causes of
victimization
Search for remedies or prevention
Concerned with:
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How victims are defined
How definitions are applied – by victim by
social scientists, by community
How victims react to experience
How society responds to victims – systems
for dealing with victims
Lifestyle Theory
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Victimization is the function of the victim’s
lifestyle
Going out in public places late at night, living
in urban areas
High-risk lifestyles: drinking, taking drugs,
getting involved in crimes, leaving
household for a long time, etc
Do WSU students have high-risk lifestyles?
Lifestyle Theory
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How to decrease your own
victimization?
Lifestyles Theory
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Micro-level theory
Variations in lifestyle affect # situations with high
victimization risks that an individual may
experience
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People associate with
Working outside of the home
Leisure activities
Someone who has drug dealer as friend more
likely to be victimized than someone with
prosocial friends
Empirical Tests
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General findings: homes that are well-guarded
are less likely to be burglarized, people who stay
out late and drink heavily are more likely to be
crime victims
Schwartz and Pitts (1995): study of college
women at Ohio University
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Most likely to be victim:
 Number of nights go out drinking (suitable
target/absence of guardianship)
 Whether have friends who get women drunk for
purpose of having sex (motivated offender)
 Experiencing uncomfortable advances in bar
(suitable target, motivated offenders, absence of
capable guardianship)
Dangerous Times
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Nighttime and weekends are the peak
times for most violent crimes, property
offenses, and public order violations
Darkness is a criminogenic condition
(fewer people are around, higher rates
of drug and alcohol use, greater
anonymity)
Dangerous places
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Dangerousness of particular physical
locations changes according to crimes
Victims’ homes (homicide, assault,
sexual offenses)
Streets around victim’s homes and
deserted areas near parking lots and
entertainment establishments (muggers
and auto thieves)
Dangerous Times and Places for Homicide
and Aggravate Assault
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Homicide
Evening hours (6pm-6a.m)
(70%)
Weekends (39%)
Home/residence (35%)
Street/alley (39%)
Vehicle (10%)
Commercial places (6%)
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Aggravated Assault
Evening hours (6p.m. –
midnight) (49%)
Within 1 mile of residence
(54%)
Streets/parking lots (34%)
In or near victim’s home
(28%)
Schools (5%)
Home of
friend/relative/neighbor (9%)
Victim profile in homicide and
aggravated assault
Homicide victims
Male (76%)
White (50%); African american(48%)
13-24 years old (32%)
Same race of victim and offender (89%)
Single and never married (54%)
Urban resident (54%)
Employed (56%)
High risk occupations:
1. Taxicab driver and Chauffeurs
2. Police/Law enforcement officials
3. Hotel clerks
4. Garage & service station employee
5. Stock handlers and baggers
Aggravated assault victims
Male (68%)
White (77%); African american(19%)
16-24 years (17 per 100,000)
Never married (13 per 100,000)
Divorced/Separated (13 per 100,000)
Family income <$7,500 (20 per 1,000)
Urban resident (11 per 1,000)
One-Victim incident (90%)
Victim tried to protect self (74%)
Victim physically injured (25%)
Average rate (7.5 per 100,000)
Sociodemographic Characteristics of Offenders
Overrepresented for Each Crime Type
Crime Type
Murder &
Assault
Sex
Male
Race
African
< 25 American
Social
Class
Lower
Class
Prior
Arrest?
Offense
Spontaneous
Specialization
Acts
Yes
No
Yes
African
American
Lower
Class
Yes
Some
Mixed
Age
Sexual Assault
Male
< 25
Personal &
Institutional
Robbery
Male
< 25
African
American
Lower
Class
Yes
No
No
Residential &
Nonresidential
Burglary
Male
< 25
African
American
Lower
Class
Yes
No
Mixed
Motor Vehicle
Theft
Male
< 21
African
American
Mixed
Yes
Some
Mixed
Occupational
Crime
Male
> 25
White
Lower,
Middle
Class
No
Some
No
Organizational
Crime
Male
> 25
White
Upper
Class
No
Some
No
Public Order
Crime
Both
< 25
African
American
Lower
Class
Yes
Mixed
Mixed
Time and Place Elements of Crime Profiles
Crime Type
Night/Day
Season
Location
Type of Area
Murder
Night
Summer
Victim's Home
Low Income
Aggravated Assault
Night
Summer
Street
Low Income
Sexual Assault (Rape)
Night
Summer
Victim s Home
Low Income
Day
Summer
Early Fall
Near Victim's
Home.
Business
Low Income
Institutional Robbery
Night
Summer
Early Fall
Business
Central City
Residential Burglary
Day
Summer
Victim's Home
Low Income
Nonresidential
Burglary
Night
Summer
Business
Low Income
Motor Vehicle Theft
Night
Summer
Near Victim's
Home
Central City
Occupational Crime
Don't Know
Don't Know
Work
Don't Know
Organizational Crime
Don't
Don't Know
Work
Don't Know
Public Order Crime
Night
All
Don't Know
All Types
Personal Robbery
Situational Elements of Crime Profiles
Motivation
Victim-Offender
Relationship
Percentage
Co-Offenders
Expressive
Nonstranger
< 50%
> 50%
20-50%
Both Expressive
& Instrumental
Nonstranger
< 10%
> 50%
< 10%
Personal &
Institutional Robbery
Instrumental
Strangers
> 33%
> 50%
< 10%
Residential &
Nonresidential
Burglary
Instrumental
Strangers
< 50%
50%
< 20%
Both Expressive
& Instrumental
Strangers
> 50%
50%
< 20%
Instrumental
Strangers &
Nonstrangers
< 10%
< 50 %
< 10%
Both Expressive
& Instrumental
N/A
> 50%
> 50%
N/A
Crime Type
Murder &
Aggravated Assault
Sexual Assault
(Rape)
Motor Vehicle Theft
Occupational &
Organizational Crime
Public Order Crime
Alcohol/
Victim
Drag Use Contribution
Routine Activity Theory
Cohen, Felson (195…)
 “Opportunity makes the thief”
 RAT argues that when a crime occurs,
three things happen at the same time and in
the same space:
• 1. a suitable target is available
• 2. there is the lack of a suitable guardian to
prevent the crime from happening
• 3. motivated offender is present
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Routine Activity Theory
A Suitable Target
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The first condition for crime is that a
suitable target must be available
There are three major categories of
target:
a person
an object
a place
Potential Targets
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Four things make a target suitable to an
offender and these use the acronym VIVA:
Value. The offenders value the target for
what they gain or value the effect they have
on it
For example, a burglary might occur
because the burglar wants the stolen items
or wants the money made from selling them
Offender might damage a bus stop, because
he/she gets satisfaction (value)
Potential Targets
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Inertia. The size or weight of an item can effect how
suitable it is. For example, items such as CDs and
watches are suitable targets for shoplifters because
they are small and portable.
Visibility. How visible a target is can affect its
suitability. For example, items left in view of a
window or someone counting money near a cash
point machine are visible targets.
Access. If a target is easy to get to, this increases
its suitability. So, goods displayed outside shops, or
someone walking through a deserted street alone at
night are accessible.
Absence of a Capable Guardian
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A capable guardian is anything, either a person or
thing, that discourages crime from taking place
Police patrols, security guards, Neighbourhood
Watch schemes, locks, fences, barriers, lighting,
alarm systems, vigilant staff and co-workers, friends
A guardian can be present, but ineffective. For
example a CCTV camera is not a capable guardian
if it is set up or sited wrongly
Staff might be present in a shop, but may not have
sufficient training or awareness to be an effective
deterrent
Likely Offenders
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Gain/Need: poverty, to feed a drug habit,
greed.
Society/Experience/Environment: living in
a culture where crime is acceptable,
because of peer pressure, coercion, lack of
education, poor employment prospects,
envy, as a rebellion against authority.
Beliefs: a belief that crime in general or
particular crimes aren’t wrong, as a protest
on a matter of principle, prejudice against
certain minority/ethnic groups.
The offender profile in burglary
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Male (88%)
White (68%), African American (30%)
<25 years old (64%)
Prior arrest record (79%)
Prior felony arrest record (68%)
Little offense specialization
The victim profile in household
burglary
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Highest
<19 years old head of
household
African American/Latino
Income<$15,000
Urban resident
Renter
Six or more people in
households
Resident for less than 6
months
Multifamily unit
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Lowest
65 or older head of
household
White/non-Latino
Income >$75,000
Rural/Suburban
Owner
Live alone
Residents for more than
5years
Single-family unit
Benett and Wright (1984)
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Found that burglars use a variety of
cues in selecting targets (empirical test
of RAT)
“Surveillability” refers to the extent to
which a house is overseen by
neighbors or passerby
How to chose a target
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“Signs of occupancy” (internal
lightening, cars in a garage, seeing
resident in the house, noise, voices)
“Accessibility” refers to easy of entry
without detection (alarms, window and
door bars, security entrances, etc)
Empirical Validity of RAT
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Sherman (1989) “hot spots” study
He focused on “criminology of place”
and used Minneapolis police “call data”
Most crime reports (calls) came from
only 3% of all locations in the city
Those places attracted offenders
(absence of guardians)
Evaluation of RAT
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RAT is not a theory of criminal behavior, it is a theory of
criminal victimization
Theory does not explain why some persons are
motivated to commit crime
Does not explain why informal/formal control exercised
to prevent crime
It just assumes that informal/formal guardians are not
present or able to prevent crime, then crime will occur
Theory of common sense (Akers, 2000)
Sit at home, watch television, decrease chance of
being victimized
Policy Implications
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Situational Crime Prevention: stop crime
by preventing the intersection in time and
space of offenders and targets that lack
guardianship
Make target less attractive and offenders
will choose not to commit crime