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Chapter 8 Cold War 1945 - 1958 Resumption of Civil Aviation Nations demobilized • Soviet Union did not • War surplus transports International Aviation • Many Questions Competition National Monopolies Regulation—international or individual gov’t Airspace free and open or sovereign Airport Operators • Chicago Conference -- 1944 Chicago Conference November-December 1944 • International Conference on Civil Aviation issues Rights of transit and landing Allocation of commercial air routes Safety issues Technical matters Navigation topics • 52 countries participated Soviet Union did not Chicago Conference Accepted U.S. standards • Air rules • Traffic control procedures • Communication practices • Meteorological services Five Freedoms Freedom 1 (Air Transit) • Freedom to fly over foreign territory without landing Freedom 2 (Air Transit) • Freedom to land for technical, nontraffic, non-commercial reasons • Refueling or repairs **Newfoundland excluded by British Strategic position Five Freedoms Great Britain/United States disagreed Freedom 3 (Air Transport) • Freedom to load passengers, mail, or cargo in the airline’s country of origin and disembark them in a foreign country Freedom 4 (Air Transport) • Freedom to take on board passengers, mail, or cargo in a foreign country and to transport them to the airline’s country of origin Five Freedoms Freedom 5 (Air Transport) • Freedom to transport passengers, mail, or cargo from one foreign country to another foreign country beyond the airline’s country Canada acted as intermediary One & Two adopted multilaterally Three – Five formalized bilaterally • BY 1953, only 12 agreed to all 5 Provisional ICAO Organized in 1945 • 50 members • Headquartered in Montreal • Administered 96 articles of Chicago Convention • Active until ratification of Chicago Convention • Adopted U.S. radio and navigation aid system Replaced in 1947 by permanent ICAO Purpose • Ensure safety ICAO 50 member nations Purpose • Ensure safety • Encourage civil aircraft design • Encourage development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities • Promote fair, safe, efficient, and economical operation of international standardization ICAO Telecommunications Services • Iceland and Greenland • Served N. Atlantic flights 1952 • Defined absolute liability of aircraft operator for damage to third parties on ground 1955 • Limited liability of air carrier to passengers IATA International Air Transport Association Successor to IATA of 1919 • 1945 - 57 members from 31 nations • Today – 230 members from 126 nations • Focused on air traffic operations • Established traffic conferences Set international fares IATA Bermuda Agreement - 1946 • Compromise of Chicago Conference • British Yielded on frequency of service Newfoundland included for Freedoms 1 & 2 • U.S. Yielded on price by recognizing IATA as mechanism for joint rate-setting • In effect until 1977 Bermuda 2 agreement Bilateral agreements • Traded air rights for foreign gov’t support Resumption of Civil Aviation Infrastructure • 535 airports built • ATC standardization • Aviation #1 industry during war #12 industry by 1948 Postwar boom in civil aviation Civil Aeronautics Administration • Decentralized Policy making in Washington Regional policy administration Designee program • Aircraft inspectors, flights instructors • Technical Standard Order (TSO) ICAO Phonetic alphabet English international language Landing systems • Ground Control Approach (GCA - Military) • Instrument Landing System (ILS – Civil) Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) • VOR – 1952 45,000 miles of Victor airways - 1954 • Standard approach lighting British system favored Civil Aviation General Aviation • Production suspended during war • Resumed in 1945 1946 – 35,001 civil aircraft 1947 – 15,617 civil aircraft • Annual operating cost was ½ of initial price • New electronic navigation aids 1948 – 7,302 civil aircraft 1951 – 2,477 civil aircraft • 1945 – 20,000 private pilot licenses awarded • End of 1946 – 190,000 private pilots Commercial Aviation United States Airlines • Big 5: American Eastern Pan Am TWA United • Small: Continental Delta Pennsylvania Central Northeast Commercial Aviation Competition • Domestic - Speed and service • International - “area competition” TWA – Atlantic routes American Export – Routes to Northern Europe Pan Am – peacetime monopoly of foreign routes ended • Non-skeds Pilots with wartime experience War surplus aircraft Charter service – freight service • Local service airlines Commercial Aviation Airways Crisis – 1950s • Increased volume & type of air traffic • Inadequate facilities/equipment/funding • For safety, controllers spaced aircraft 10 minutes apart Bad weather Greater separation • Increased cancellations, delays, and nearmisses • 1955 mid-air – 15 people died Commercial Aviation Crisis Resolution • New and modern system required • Different technologies squabble • No common military/civilian system • Piecemeal solution MIT • Semiautomatic Ground Environment SAGE Air defense system Adopt to civil use? Crisis Resolution Government • Long range radar facility in NY area United Airlines • Installed airborne radar equipment in fleet 1957 • Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System Crashes continued--Near misses common FAA Congress passed legislation in 1958 • Federal Aviation Act of 1958 FAA independent department • Executive Branch Fully operational 1 Jan 1959 European Airlines British Airlines • Lack of transports Purchased American aircraft • Jet engine technology • Comet (50% faster than others) British ahead of other nations Farnborough Air Show Orders from around the world Flight tests in 1951 • 1st jet airline service – 2 May 1952 London to Johannesburg European Airlines Comet Crashes • 6 crashes in 1953-1954 • Certificate of airworthiness withdrawn Hydraulic flight controls gave no feedback Metal fatigue weakened fuselage • Commercial air service resumed in 1958 • Redesigned windows • Skin sheeting thickened • British led in Crash investigation Jet service Maintaining worldwide network of routes Developing long-haul routes Commercial Aviation French Airlines • Civil air service resumed in 1945 • Aircraft from different nations Soviet Airlines • Tupolev (Tu-104) 2nd jet airliner (1956) • National Airline (Aeroflot) German Airlines • Pilots did not fly for 5 years • Lufthansa (1 Apr 1955) • Deutsche Lufthansa (4 Feb 1956) Commercial Aviation European Lines • Pattern -- Create strong national airline Consortium (SAS) KLM SABENA Iberia Finnair Commercial Aviation Latin American Airlines • Strong Axis influence • U.S. provided support in 1941 • Countries nationalized Axis companies • Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Mexico Led aviation in post-war Latin America Commercial Aviation Africa and Asia Airlines • Decolonization • National and domestic airlines Japan Airlines • SCAPIN 301 Banned all civil aviation for 5 years • SCAPIN 2106 Japan could create domestic airline Hot Spots USSR - Stalin • Maintain territorial gains from war • Destroy Germany Economic Political Military threat • Organized COMINFORM Worldwide communism U.S. - Truman • Containment and deterrence • Nuclear weapons – cheap alternatives Nuclear Weapons U.S. • Sole nuclear power into 1949 Soviet Union • 1949 United Kingdom • 1952 Germany No German postwar gov’t established • 4 leading Allies occupied Germany • West Germany/West Berlin United States Great Britain France • East Germany/East Berlin Soviet Union Germany Berlin Air Lift Western Allies • Develop Germany economically • Introduced single currency Stalin • West would not risk war over Berlin • Soviet Union had not demobilized • Rail blockade through E. Germany • Total blockade – 24 June 1948 Berlin Air Lift Truman response • Berlin airlift • Atomic retaliation threat B-29s sent to Britain Berlin Airlift Operation Vittles • Start 26 Jun 1948 • Douglas C-47s • Required 5,000 tons/day August 1948 • 1,500 flights/day • 4,500 tons cargo Operation Little Vittles Berlin Aiflift Operation Little Vittles • Gail Halvorsen • >3,000 tons of candy West Berlin • Winter – 6,000 tons/day • New runway at Tempelhof • French airport Soviet Response • Free food • Psychological warfare • Harassing flights (773) Berlin Aiflift January 1949 • 171,000 tons February 1949 • 152,000 tons March 1949 • 196,223 tons April 1949 • Easter Parade April 15 – April 16 1,381 flights 12,941 tons of coal Berlin Aiflift April 1949 • 234,476 tons Net tonnage • 6,729 tons/day • 8,893 tons/day Berlin Airlift Blockade lifted • 12 May 1949 Airlift ends on 30 Sep 1949 • U.S. delivered 1,783,573 tons • British delivered 541,937 tons • 101 fatalities Korean War Korea divided after WWII War began 25 Jun 1950 • PRK invaded South Korea Rapidly pushed south • UN counterattack – Sep 1950 1 Oct 1950 – pushed PRK past 38th parallel • China intervention – 25 Oct 1950 300,000 Chinese troops cross Yalu River Push UN back south • Truman authorizes atomic bombs Guam Korean War Jet Fighters • UN jet forces F-84 Thunderjet F-86 Sabre • Soviet jet forces MiG-15 Fagot • MiG Alley Korean War Bombing • B-29s Used against N. Korea cities Cities more than 50% destroyed Tonnage (600 – 800 tons/day) • Chinese Soviet Tupolev Tu-2 bombers Korean War Rotorcraft • First large scale deployment Medical Evacuation Sikorsky H-19 • Development of AH-1 Cobra Korean War Armistice • Established DMZ • China world power • Eisenhower’s New Look policy Nuclear deterrence Threat of nuclear retaliation Hot Spots French colonies French Colonial Wars • Vietnam (1 Nov 1955 – 30 April 1975) Dien Bien Phu • French last stand American presence increased Operation Linebacker I and II 15 Jan 1973 – offensive action suspended 27 Jan 1973 – cease fire • American Aircraft Grumman F6F Hellcat Grumann F8F Bearcat Algeria Significant use of helicopters • Helicopter technology • Gunship Suppressive firepower • Transport Loading doors & rear loading door • Need for reserve engine power • Importance of maintenance Atoms for Peace Eisenhower’s UN speech • Lead to disarmament? • Atomic Energy Commission Went public Nuclear power plants Medical applications Nuclear Plane • 1946 – NEPA established • Millions spent • Program cancelled in 1961 Rockets, Missiles, and Satellites Air Defense • Truman initiated in 1945 • MIT and Michigan funded for research Sage • Defense against enemy bombers • Digital computers processed information • Vacuum tube technology • Operational in one sector – 1958 • 22 0f 32 sectors operational • System obsolete by 1958 Missile replacing bombers Transistors replacing tubes Rockets, Missiles, and Satellites Electronics • Vacuum tubes First generation • Transistors Second generation Semi-conductor material • Integrated circuit Third generation Solid-state semiconductor material Aircraft Bombers • US defense after war • Boeing B-47 • Over 1,900 produced Soviet Bombers • Tupolev Tu-4 Bull • Mya-4 Bison • Tupolev Tu-95 Bear Bombers US perceived gap of 2 superpowers • US increased bomber production U-2 spy planes • Showed USSR lagged behind Rockets & Missiles Soviet Rocket Program • Worked with captured German V-2s • Within 5 years had in development Nuclear warheads and ballistic missiles large long-range missiles Powerful rockets US Rocket Program • Small at start • Project Paperclip German scientists/engineers Live/work in United States Werner von Braun Missiles US Missile Programs • Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Develop thermonuclear weapons • Atlas weapon system First successful American intercontinental missile More than 18,000 scientists/engineers • Titan weapon system • Falcon (air-to-air) • Polaris (solid-fuel submarine launched) Missiles Soviet Missile Program • More support for this program • Developed variety of missiles Surface-to-surface Surface-to-air Air-to-air • August 1957 First launch of intercontinental ballistic missile Satellites Soviet Satellites • Sputnik Sputnik I • Launched 4 Oct 1957 • Transmitted for 21 days • Contributed to space race Sputnik II • Launched 29 days after Sputnik I • Carried laboratory dog Satellites US Satellites • Vanguard Ready to launch 6 Dec 1957 Burned on launchpad • Explorer I Von Braun Army team Launched 31 Jan 1958 Used Army Redstone rocket Transmitted until May 1958 Vanguard I • Launched March 1958 Transmitted until 1964 Rockets, Missiles, and Satellites Geophysical Year (1958) • Soviets More powerful vehicles Larger satellites • U.S. More satellites Better scientific equipment Supersonic Flight British abandoned program • Cost and safety U.S. • Bell X-1 (14 Oct 1947) Sustained for 20 seconds in level flight • Bell X-2 Record altitude in 1956 (126,200 feet) • First aircraft to reach Mach 3 Went out of control Pilot killed, destroying plane • Douglas D-558-2 • Rocket propelled