Transcript Poultry Feeds - Sustainable Development

Pastured Poultry Nutrition and
Feeding
Anne Fanatico, Ph.D.
Sustainable Development Program
Appalachian State University
[email protected]
• Nutrition is study of how the body uses
nutrients (i.e. consume, digest, absorb,
transport, metabolize, excrete)
• Good nutrition is basic to good health
• Cost of feed is one of the highest
production costs in livestock production
Nutrients
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Carbohydrates
Protein (amino acids)
Fats
Minerals
Vitamins
Water
Carbohydrates
Sugar, starches
Indigestible fiber (cellulose, hemicellulose,
etc.); not used extensively by chickens
Energy is needed for
• Muscular activity, movement, keeping warm
• Biochemical energy for maintenance and
growth of tissues (glucose is metabolized and
ATP is released)
Proteins (amino acids)
Proteins and amino acids are components of lean tissue, enzymes,
metabolites); young animals need protein to build body; There are
22 amino acids in body proteins; 10 are essential to have in the diet
– Phenylalanine
– Valine
– Threonine
– Tryptophan
– Isoleucine
– Methionine
– Histidine
– Arginine
– Leucine
– Lysine
Fats
• Fats are high in energy and carry fat-soluble
vitamins
• Essential fatty acids
– Linoleic acid (18:2, n-6)
– a-linolenic acid (18:3, n-3)
– Arachidonic acid (can be synthesized from linoleic if
sufficient in diet)
• Symptoms of inadequacy of linoleic are loss of
membrane integrity, increased need for water and
decreased resistance (NRC 1994)
Minerals
Part of body:
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Bone , teeth
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Egg shell
Electrolytes function in fluid balance to maintain concentration
gradients
• Only about 3-4% of diet
Macro-Minerals
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Calcium
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Phosphorus
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Sodium
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Potassium
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Chlorine
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Magnesium
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Sulfur
Microminerals
• Function as activators or cofactors of enzymes
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Iron
Iodine
Zinc
Manganese
Copper
Selenium
Molybdenum
Chromium
Vitamins
Co-factors of enzymes to catalyze reactions in the body
Less than 1% of the diet
Water-soluble Vitamins (rapidly excreted)
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Vitamin C
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B-Complex Vitamins
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Thiamin B1
Pantothenic acid
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Riboflavin B2
Niacin
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Pyridoxine B6
Folic acid
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Cyanocobalamin B12
Biotin
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Choline
Fat-soluble Vitamins (can be stored in fatty tissue)
• Vitamin A Vitamin E
• Vitamin D Vitamin K
• Water
• Animals are mainly made up of water
– Lubricant, regulates body temperature,
solvent for body’s solid components, transport
medium, etc
• Animals don’t eat without water
• Death occurs rapidly without water in hot
weather
Body Functions and nutrient needs
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Maintenance
Growth
Finishing
Production
Work Reproduction
Nutrient requirements of animals
National Academies Press
http://www.nap.edu/catalog/nrs/
Nutrient Requirements of Poultry 1994
poultry.
Digestion in the avian
• Poultry classified as nonruminant
omnivores
From Oregon State
Digestion in the avian
• Digestive organs of the fowl are different
from other farm animals
– Esophagus is modified
• Crop is dilation for storage
– Gizzard instead of teeth; grinding organ; grit
needed unless feed is pre-ground (then
gizzard is not very muscular)
– GI tract is short; rapid passage; no lactose
• Birds have two ceca
• Ceca are larger when bird eats high fiber
(up to 18% fiber digestion possible)
• Large intestine is short in birds; no distinct
colon or rectum but rather cloaca
Feed Classification
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Energy feeds
Protein supplements
Mineral supplements
Vitamin supplements
Nonnutritive additives
Pastures, range plants, green forages
Silages
Dry forages and roughages
Organic requirements: all agricultural
products must be organic
Energy Feeds
• Ex. Cereal grains (corn, wheat, etc.), byproducts feeds (corn gluten meal), fruits,
nuts
• High in readily digestible carbohydrates
(starch, sugars) and thus high in energy
• Less than 18% crude fiber and less than
20% crude protein
– Energy feeds usually low in essential amino acids
(methionine are first limiting amino acid for
poultry); high in vitamin E and B vitamins
Protein supplements
Types of protein supplements
• Plant origin (organic soybeans and peas); expensive
• Animal origin (organic dairy by-products, currently
fishmeal does not have to be organic but may not
contain ethoxyquinine; meat and bone meal not
permitted in organic); very expensive
• Synthetic amino acids not permitted in organic
(methionine temporarily allowed for poultry)
More than 20% crude protein
May have high energy but should not be used for energy
due to high cost
• Protein of plant origin is often oilseed meal
(byproduct of vegetable oil extraction); about
40% CP and highly digestible
– Organic requirements: Chemical extraction
(hexane) not permitted
– Mechanical extraction or expelling is permitted
• Essential amino acids may be low
• High in phosphorus (but much is bound as
phytate and not available to monogastrics)
• Dairy byproducts and fishmeal are very
high quality protein
• Good essential amino acids, mineral
content, B vitamins
• Novel protein feeds: worms, larvae, algae
Raising black soldier fly larvae
for protein feed
Vermiculture produces both worms and castings
Mineral and Vitamin Supplements
• Macrominerals
– Calcium
• Oystershell, limestone (calcium carbonate; oystershell
is slow release)
– Phosphorus
• Plant (mainly tied up as phytate)
• Rock (dicalcium phosphate, defluorinated phosphate)
• Animal (dairy products; bonemeal not permitted in
organic)
– Sodium/Chloride
• Salt
• Microminerals
– Plants, soil, animal products
• Vitamins
– Water-soluble (riboflavin, etc)
• Wheat bran, dairy products, forage plants
– Fat-soluble (vitamins A, E, D, K)
• Alfalfa meal, fish oil
• Pre-mixes often used
Ex. Fertrell Nutribalancer
Very common vitamin and mineral among pastured poultry
producers
• Dicalcium Phosphate, Dehydrated Seaweed Meal, Salt, Calcium
Carbonate, Vitamin A Supplement, Vitamin D3 Supplement, Vitamin
E Supplement, Menadione Nicotinamide Bisulfite Complex, Riboflavin
Supplement, D-Calcium Pantothenic Acid, Niacin Supplement,
Choline Chloride, Vitamin B12 Supplement, Folic Acid, Thiamine
Hydrochloride, Pyridoxine Hydrochloride, Biotin, Manganese Sulfate,
Ferrous Sulfate, Calcium Iodate, Zinc Sulfate, Copper Sulfate,
Sodium Selenite, Dried Aspergillus oryzae Fermentation Extract,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Dried fermentation product of
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Dried fermentation product of
Lactobacillus casei, Dried fermentation product of Lactobacillus
plantarum, Dried fermentation product of Enterococcus faecium,
Dried fermentation product of Bacillus coagulans, Dried
fermentation product of Bacillus licheniformis, and Dried
fermentation product of Bacillus subtilis
Vitamin and mineral premixes
• Vitamins and minerals should not be
mixed together due to degradation
• Fertrell Nutribalancer mixes vitamins and
minerals together but a booster pack is
sold for product more than 4 months old
Nonnutritive feed additives
• Added to rations for nonnutritive reasons
(i.e. enhance health)
• Conventional poultry production:
antibiotics, arsenic, coccidiostats
• Organic poultry production: probiotics
Pasture, range plants, green forage
• Ex. Bermuda grass pasture, clover
pastures, wheat pasture
– Animals self-harvest or
– Many forages are harvested for storage
• Moisture content is usually 50-85%
• Protein varies (legumes are high)
Silages
• Plant material ensiled under anaerobic
conditions
– Controlled fermentation produces acids which
kill of bacteria, molds
• Common storage method and will keep for
years
• Many materials can be ensiled
– Corn silage, legume forage silages, cannery
wastes, roots/tubers
Dry forages and Roughages
• Ex. Legume hays, grass hays, wheat straw
• Feeds contain at least 18% crude fiber
– High in cellulose, hemicellulose, lignan
– Low in readily digestible carbohydrates
(starch, sugars)
Forage Characteristics
• Green forages, silages, and dry forages have much in
common
• Qualities of good quality forage
– Relatively immature when harvested by animals or
mechanical means
– Green and leafy with soft pliable stems
• Forage may not grow year-round but animals need feed
year-round; storage or preservation methods
– Cut forage for hay, silage
– Stored forage may become roughage over time
• Organic requirements: seed must be organic, no GMO
seeds, no prohibited practices for pasture (i.e. no agrichemicals)
• Many factors affect
nutritive content of
forages
– Weather damage
– Soil fertility
– Maturity at time of
harvesting
• Nutrients and
digestibility decrease
with maturity while
fiber and lignan
increase
• Forages for poultry should be low-fiber
– Grasses (i.e. orchardgrass, Kentucky blue grass)
– Legumes (i.e. clovers)
• Increase omega-3 fatty acids in eggs and meat;
attract insects for birds
• Higher quality feed than grasses (higher in protein,
calcium, carotene
– Forbs (chicory)
• Diversity: Use of warm-season and cold
season forages can provide vegetation much
of year; feed sprouts in winter
To make use of pasture, encourage
foraging
• Provide many popholes
• Open popholes as much as possible
– In winter, provide winter garden or veranda
• Provide feed/water inside and outside
• Provide shade/shelter on pasture
• Use active genetics
Feeding
• Birds need a balanced diet that meets
their nutritional requirements
• Organic feed is expensive
• Small-scale farmers usually feed single
poultry diets
Protein and Energy Requirements of
Poultry (NRC, 1994)
Broilers
0-3 wk
3-6 wk
6-8 wk
CP
23%
20%
18%
ME (kcal/kg) 3,200
3,200
3,200
Turkeys
0-4 wk
8-12 wk
16-20 wk
CP
28%
22%
16.5%
3,000
3,200
ME (kcal/kg) 2,800
Meat birds eat less protein and more energy as they age
Protein and Energy Requirements
Brown- 0-6
egg
wk
Pullet
CP
17%
6-12
wk
15%
1218
wk
14%
18 –
Laying
1st egg Hen
ME
2,800
(kcal/kg)
2,800
2,850 2,850
16%
16.5%
2,900
• NRC (1994) requirements are based on
moderate temperature
– In hot weather, birds eat less (% CP should
be increased)
– In cold weather, birds eat more (% CP should
be decreased)
• Based on high-yielding birds
Poultry Food Pyramid
No sweets!
Trace minerals; vitamins (1%)
Macro Minerals (5%)
Protein (20-30%)
Grains (60-70%)
Feeding Methods
• Fully formulated single diets
– Phases (starter, grower, finisher)
– Basal diet that is modified
• Choice
– Compound diet plus supplemental grain (whole wheat)
– “Mash and grain”
• “Mash” is old term: High protein concentrate plus vitamins and
minerals plus grain (calcium fed separately for layers)
• Free-choice or “cafeteria”
– Multiple feed ingredients offered in separate feeders
Mix your own
• http://www.attra.ncat.org/attrapub/poultry/feeding.html
Purchased organic feed; Ex.
Cashton
Starter 20% or 22% CP
Grower 18% or 20% CP
Layer 17% CP
24%-28% Turkey Starter
21%-22% Turkey Grower
16%-17% Turkey Finisher
Ex. Nature’s Best
Poultry Feeds
• Broiler Starter
• Broiler
Grower/Finisher
• Pullet Starter
• Pullet
Grower/Developer
• Egg Layer Pellets
• Egg Layer Mash
• Egg Layer
• Concentrate 27%
• Scratch grains may be fed
as a feed stretcher to
older birds; however do
not feed more than 10%
of daily intake, as it will
reduce the protein level
• Broiler Concentrate is
designed to be mixed
with ground corn to make
a 19% CP feed for
growing broilers that are
well started
On-Farm Mixing Using a Base Diet for
Mixed Flock Farm
• Example: Fertrell 19% CP broiler diet
– Starter feed: add 8% additional fishmeal to
increase CP to 21%
– Turkey feed: add 16% additional fishmeal to
increase CP to 26%
– Pullet grower: Add 10-15% grains to reduce
CP to 16%
– Layer feed: add 7-8% additional calcium; to
increase calcium and reduce CP to 17%
Principles
Single ration vs. self-selection (“choice”)
Principles
• Evidence exists that poultry are capable of
adjusting intake as a function of nutrient
requirements (Larbier and Leclercq, 1994)
– Domestic poultry descended from wild birds
with ability to self-select nutrients from
environment
• Poultry tend to eat for energy needs
• However feed selection can be specific for
energy, protein, minerals etc (Cerrate, 2008)
Advantages of Choice Feeding
• Energy savings in feed preparation
• Use on-farm ingredients
(Blair, 2009)
– Reduce costs, especially for organic
• Reduce transportation of feeds
• Reduce grinding and mixing
– Reduce energy use
– Birds can eat some grains whole (corn difficult)
• Birds can grind, mix, and formulate
Advantages of Choice Feeding
More control over feed
– Grower knows feed ingredients (not least
cost)
– Control particle size; less waste
– Keeping grain whole may preserve vitamins
– Health benefits to feeding whole grains
Advantages of Choice Feeding
• Use of whole grains can help fully develop
the digestive system
• Whole grains increase feed utilization and
starch digestion because rate of passage
is slowed (Cerrate, 2008)
Advantages of Choice Feeding
• More precise way to meet nutrient
requirements of specialty birds
– Birds adjust intake daily to meet nutrient
needs
– With a single feed, birds can only adjust for
energy (Blair, 2009)
– Free-choice may result in feed savings (Blair,
2009)
Advantages of Choice Feeding
Integrates well with outdoor access
– Birds with open housing/outdoor access experience
temperature fluctuations
– If cold, birds can eat more energy without
overconsuming expensive protein
Integrates well with additional nutrients on pasture
– Forage
– Invertebrates
• Grit must be provided to allow grinding of whole
grains and forage
Disadvantages of Choice Feeding
• Need to use multiple feeders; more difficult to
automate feeding; more labor required;
knowledge of feed and bird requirements
needed
• In terms of performance, results are mixed
(probably due to number of variables)
• Birds may select for maximum growth rate but
not breast yield (Cerrate, 2008)
Cobb Broiler Management Guide
2008:
Supplemental Whole Wheat Feeding:
Benefits
• Reduction in feed cost and cost per kg of live weight
• Improvements in gizzard development, resulting in
improved digestive efficiency
• Ability to manipulate nutrient intake on a daily basis
Possible disadvantages if adjustments to the compound
feed are not made
• Reduced growth rate
• Reductions in lean gain
• Poorer uniformity
Supplemental grain feeding (whole
wheat)
• Can supplement a compound diet with up
to 30% whole wheat
• Can dilute a starter diet as broilers get
older
• Can be fed separately or mixed in to
compound feed
Specific “mashes”
• A mash usually has 40% CP
• Old poultry textbooks offer many mash
recipes. In past, if good range and milk
were available, no mash was used with
grain (Heuser, 1955)
Chick Starter Grower - 19% CP
• ASU mash based on
Fertrell recipe
• Mash: Crushed
roasted soybeans
(fullfat), fishmeal,
oystershell, vitamin
and mineral premix
• Grain: Cracked corn
• Grit
Shelled
corn
Roasted
soybeans
1015
lbs.
625
lbs.
100
Oats
lbs.
100
Alfalfa meal
lbs.
60% fish
75
meal
lbs.
Aragonite 25
(calcium) lbs.
Poultry
60
Nutrilbs.
Balancer
2000
Total:
lbs.
Roasted
soybeans
60% fish
meal
Aragonite
(calcium)
Poultry
NutriBalancer
kg
31.194
10.472
1.114
2.674
45.455
Small concrete mixer for mixing feed
Free-Choice Feeding
• In “cafeteria-feeding,” multiple feeds are
offered (ex. corn, whole wheat, soybean
meal, fishmeal, etc.)
• Do not provide vitamin and micromineral
premixes in a separate feeder
– Birds generally avoid it; probably due to taste
(Blair, 2009)
– Could be toxic if over-eaten
USDA ARS Free-Choice Feeding
Trial
Objectives
• Determine the impact of free-choice
feeding on free-range chicken
performance, quality, and feed cost
– Identify the contribution of the forage in yard
– Determine the impact on microbial status of
GI tract
Materials and Methods
• USDA ARS FreeRange Research
Facility
• Naturally ventilated
• Natural light used
• Designed for high-use
of yards
• Yards enclosed with
electric net fencing
Materials and Methods
• Outdoor access
provided daily after
brooding period
• Stocking density
– Indoor 0.46 m2/bird
– Outdoor 4.6 m2/bird
• Indoor enrichments
Materials and Methods
Treatments
• 1) Formulated feed
• 2) Free-Choice
• 20 birds per pen
• 5 replications
All birds had access to pasture and provided grit
Materials and Methods
• Slow-growing
commercial hybrid
(“naked neck”);
straight run
• Reaches market
weight in 12 weeks
Materials and Methods
• Formulated feed
– Local feed mill
– 20% CP
– Non-medicated
– Crumble form
• Pasture
• Grit
Materials and Methods
• Free choice feeds
– Cracked corn
– Whole wheat
– Soybean meal
– Fishmeal
– Steamed bonemeal
– Crushed oystershell
– Kelp
– Salt
– Grit
• Pasture
• Largely whole grains
• No vitamin/mineral premix
provided
• No synthetic amino acids
Production Phases
Weeks
Starter Grower
Finisher
0-3
7 - 11
4-6
Feeding practices used during phases
Formulated
Treatment
Free Choice
Treatment
Form.
Feed
Form.
Feed
Form. feed
Form.
feed
Form.
Free
Feed plus choice
free choice
Results
• The formulated diet was a commercial product with an average of
20.75% crude protein (1.04% total sulfur amino acids); while the
free-choice diet chosen by birds at 11 weeks was 13.2% crude
protein (0.70% total sulfur amino acids).
• Final live weights did not differ between treatments (P > 0.05);
however, ready-to-cook yield and breast yields were higher in the
birds from the FF treatment (P < 0.05). These higher yields are
most likely due to amino acid supplements in the formulated feed.
• The diet chosen by FC birds at end of finisher period was less
expensive than the formulated diet ($0.07/kg vs. $0.08/kg).
• These data indicate that while free-choice feeding of free-range
chickens resulted in a 1.4% lower breast yield than formulated
feeding, FC feed cost was lower. The USDA National Organic
Program is planning to ban synthetic methionine, and when that
occurs, there may be no difference in yield among birds from
formulated and free-choice diets.