Transcript Slide 1

HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE
Class I
WHY THIS COURSE?
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Agriculture is important for India
62% population depend on agriculture
Contribution to GDP going down
TFP had been declining but now recovering
NSS Survey indicates 44% farmers want to quit farming
Investment in ag. R&D declining
Youth not attracted to agriculture
Situation likely to be alarming after 2025
New generation faces a big challenge
IARI students: Good in subject matter, poor in other sub.
Origin of Agriculture
• Modern man (Homo sapiens) believed to have evolved
from Homo erectus- 135,000-200,000 yrs ago
• Most of this period lived in Nomadic existence in forest
as hunters & gatherers of food
• Process of domestication-10,000 yrs ago
• Sign of plant cultivation-8th-7th millennium BC
• Archaeological remains-wheat, barley, pea, lentils etcnear East- spread to Europe, West Asia & Nile valley
• More sp. –domesticated
• What motivated them to adopt: hunting to settled agri.?
• People on diversified diet healthier than farmers
FOOD & AGRICULTURE
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Food – an essential need
Agriculture- prime source for food
History of agri.- co-terminus with civilization
History of Indian agri.- complicated &
controversial
• Absence of literary text for early period
• Lit. available – post Gupta or early medieval
era
Agriculture in India
• Earliest source- Arthashastra of Kautilya
– Agri. is way of life, a philosophy & a culture
– Agri. & herding under Revenue Admn.
– Characterized by archaelogical evidences
1. Vindhya-Ganga region
2. North-west of Indian subcontinent
– Hunting-gathering in late Mesolithic period to
– Domestication of animals and cultivation of
plants- 7-6th millenium BC
Agriculture in India
• Indian subcontinent had 2 centres of farming of
cereals :
– North-west with barley-wheat complex (Mehrgarh)
– Vindhya-Ganga region for rice: latter is earlier than
former
Domestication of rice is found at Atranjikher & Lal Qila
(1200-1500 BC)
Rice-wheat-barley-legume agri. Established in Narhan
& Imlikhurd by the end of 3rd millennium
Two crop a year started around this period
Agriculture in India
• Millets of African origin
-Introduced in India in 3rd millennium BC
-Associated with Harappan culture (2,500-2,000 BC)
-Came to middle Ganga plains by 1800 BC
• Border land of Afghanistan- Domestication of animals and plants
– Symbiotic development of sedentary agri. & pastoral
nomadism- quite common in hills
Agriculture in India
• Indus civilization- Well provided with
development of Agri & animal husbandry
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Higher precipitation
Irrigation
Cultivation of rice, wheat & barley
Use of chem. Fertilizers (Gypsum & CaSO4)
Raising two crops a year
Agriculture in India
• Sixth century BC to 6TH century AD-Variety of
sources:
-Pali, Sangam, Sanskrit
-Kautilya’s Arthsastra & Dharmsastra
– Classification of land
– Irrigation
– Export of items-sugar
– Taxes &
– Medicinal & aromatic plants
Agriculture in India
• Early medieval Period (600 AD to 1200 AD)
– Agrarian structure
– New type of tools & technology
– Regional agri. –South India, Bengal & Gujarat
British Period :
-Initialy concerned with development
- Ignored agriculture
-Led to Bengal Famine
Origin of Agriculture- Hypothesis
• Several hypotheses but debate continues as none
of them wholly satisfactory:
– Climate change- ice age-11,000 yrs ago- favourable
environment for farming
– Population pressure
– Resource concentration from desertification
– Land ownership
– Natural selection
Greg Wadley & Angus Martin (1993)- cereals and milk
contain ‘Exorphins’- drug like addictive properties
Origin of Agriculture
• Origin of agri. Can’t be because of particular
invention
• Why it took so long to settle and cultivate?
• Gifted individuals – hunting can’t go forever,
let’s change- is it better way of life?
• Change is not easy to humans- discarding old
and adopting new, nevertheless
• Change is difficult but change is must for
progress
Domestication
• First domestication to modern crop production: wild
sp. –HYVs – MVs- through selection
– Grain size, colour, tolerance to drought, disease and insect
pests
– Creation of agrobiodiversity
– Movement with people– land races were created with variability
– Natural and human selection for countless generations
– Supported nearly 1 billion people in early 19th century
Hybridization and heredity- Mendel- modern crops
Crop Nutrition, Production and
Protection
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Application of chemical fertilizer in early 20th century
Humus-the main source of nutrition
Understanding of photosynthesis came much later
Pest management- balanced ecosystem- 1200 BC botanical
pesticidesused in China
Dams on river Nile in Egypt, Euphrattes and Tigris in
Mesopotamia- Iraq
Irrigation practices- Mesopotamians evolved sophisticated
irrigation system
Dams in Asia- Cauvery river in 1900 by Chola king
Farm implements- scratch plough –moldboard, sickles,
spades and hoes
Modern Agriculture
• Till 18th century- traditional way
• Scientific discoveries helped in modernization
– Origin of Species – Darwin in 1859
– Mendel’s law of inheritance - 1869- 1900
– Leibig’s discovery in 1840 killed humus theory–
chemical fertilizers industry in 1894
– Steam engine in 1858
VISIT AGRICULTURE SCIENCE MUSEUM in NASC
Trends in food grain production in India
250
200
2100
Production X5
Productivity X3
Area
X0.25
Popln.400 M-1.2B
150
1800
1500
1960-61- 82.02 MT-710kg/ha
1965-66- 72.35 MT-629kg/ha
1973-74-104.67 MT-827kg/ha
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900
600
50
300
Area in m.ha
0
1200
Production in m.t
Yield in kg/ha
0
Yield
Area and Production
300
Transformation of Agriculture
Traditional to Modern
Triggers of Growth
• Science of Heredity– Mendel :1866- 1900
• Plant nutrient- artificial fertilizers
– Liebig : 1840
• Pest Management
– Bordaux mixt. in early 20th century
• Irrigation –
– Early yrs. of 20th century
• Mechanization– Charles Hart & Charles Parr – Tractor in 1902
Traditional V/s Modern Agriculture
• Traditional
– Small farm
– Polyculture
– Heterogenous
germplasm
– Little fertilizers &
chemicals
– Minimum tillage
– Varying period for fallow
• Modern
– Large & small farms
– Monoculture
– Uniform
varieties/hybrids
– Extensive use of
fert/chem.
– Appropriate/timely
tillage
– Intensive land use
Triggers of Growth
• Science of heredity- Mendel 1866, 1900
– Demolished theories of inheritance
– Concept of genes
– Quantitative inheritance
• Chemical fertilizers
– Humus theory demolished- C bulk of dry matter from humus
– Photosynthesis – CO2 + H2O = (CH2O) + O2
– Liebig 1840- C from atmospheric CO2
– Liebig’s patented manure- first inorganic fertilizers
Triggers of Growth
– Modern fert. Industry-Liebig 1894- Phosphate, lime, magnesia
& potash
– Direct synthesis of Ammonia from N2 and H2 in Germany by
Frit Harber in 1913- Nobel Prize in Chemistry
– P form TSP from Phosphoric acid, 1st started in Germany in
1870s
– K from KCl – Murate of Potash- Germany, Russia, US, Cnada
– Global prodn- 100 million tonnes Nutrient mining- partial
replenishment
– China- the largest producer of N fert. Followed by US & India
– Declining TFP- 18/28 MT. (gap of 10 MT fertilizer)
– Balanced fert. Application - NPK & micronutrients- 4:2:1
– Imbalanced application- leads to toxicity
Triggers of Growth
• Pest Management
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Irish famine-1840- 1 million died- P. infestans
Bordeaux distt.- mixture - CuSO4 +lime
Chinese – botanical pesticides
Organic pesticides
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DDT in 1939 by Paul Muller at Geigy in Basel- Colarado potato beetle
Killed mosquitoes- saved thousands of lives
Most widely used
Organophosphorus compounds
Carbamates
Synthetic pyrethroids
Sulphonyl ureas
Widespread use
Developed countries- 0.49 kg/ha in 1961 to 1.30 kg/ha 2000
Developing countries-late starters- 0.66 in 1990- 1.02 kg/ha in 2000
Pesticide residues
IPM
Irrigation
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Water availability
Water demand
Gravity & Arch dams
Increasing WUE
– sprinkler
– drip
– micro irrigation
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
State-wise potential and actual area under microirrigation
( Area in 000 ha )
States
Andhra
Pradesh
Gujarat
Haryana
Karnataka
Maharashtra
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
UP
All India
Drip
Potential Actual
%
730
50
1599
398
745
1116
727
544
2,207
11659
11
2
24
43
2
24
0.48
12
Sprinkler
Potential Actual
%
387
52
1679
1992
697
1598
4931
158
8582
30578
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26
33
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14
17
0.12
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Total
Potential Actual
%
1117
51
3278
2390
1442
2714
5658
702
10789
42237
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22
28
26
13
23
0.20
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Total area under MI is currently 3.87 million ha against estimated potential of 42 million ha
Major crops-field crops (cotton, groundnut, sugarcane) to vegetables and fruits (banana,
papaya, mango, grapes) and plantation crops
Mechanization
• Early yrs of 20th century in US
– 38% people engaged in Agri.
– 3-4% today
India:
-1950- 8,000 tractors
-2001-2.61 million machines
-largest producer of tractor 400,000 units in 2009-10
-6,25,000 current yr. 2014
– combines
Modern Agriculture:
Seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, chemicals, machines = Led to increased
output
Impact of Modern Agriculture
• Output of US agri. Doubled during 1910-1970
– Scientific knowledge/technology
– Land grant Universities
• Resesrch
• Education
• Extension
• European agriculture
– Wheat yields-doubled in UK
• New varieties
• Improved agronomy
• Modern farm inputs
Resources and Liabilities
Fresh Water Resources – 4 %
Land – 2.3 %
Past and Projected Water Demand
Population – 16 %
Rainfall – 1170 mm
Dr. S. Raman, New Delhi Winter School,
XXXXXXXXXXXX
20/3/09
Some Success Stories
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Maize
Potato
Cotton
Soybean
Trends in food grain production in India
250
2100
Production X5
Productivity X3
Area
X0.25
200
1800
1500
1960-61-82.02 MT-710kg/ha
1965-66-72.35 MT-629kg/ha
1973-74-104.6 MT-827kg/ha
2010-11-241.5 MT-1921kg/ha
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100
900
600
50
300
Area in m.ha
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1200
Production in m.t
Yield in kg/ha
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Yield
Area and Production
300
2010-11
Prodn. X5
Yield x7
Area x.3
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Yield (ton/ha)
Production (million tonnes)
2009-10
2008-09
2007-08
2006-07
2005-06
2004-05
2003-04
2002-03
Area (million ha)
2001-02
2000-01
1990-91
1980-81
1970-71
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10
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1960-61
1950-51
Area (million ha/Production (million tonnes)
Production and productivity of rice in India
Yield(tonne/ha)
2.5
2.0
Production and Productivity of Wheat in India
Area X 2.5
Prodn.x 8.5
Prody x3
1950-51: 6.5 MT-663 kg/ha
1960-61: 11 MT- 851 kg/ha
1963-64 : 730 kg/ha
1965-66: 10.4 MT-827kg/ha
1970-71: 21.8 MT-1172kg/ha
Production and productivity of maize in India
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20
Production (million tonnes)
Yield(tonne/ha)
3.0
Prodn. x12
Yield
x4
Area
x3
2.5
2.0
15
1.5
10
1.0
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0.5
0.0
Yield (ton/ha)
Area (million ha/Production (million tonnes)
Area (million ha)
Bt Cotton in India
Area covered during 2010 : 8.4 m ha
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Area, Production and Productivity in India
Area
(m ha)
Production
(m t)
Yield
(t/ha)
% share in
oilseeds area
% share in
oilseeds
production
1970-71
0.032
0.014
0.426
0.19
0.14
1980-81
0.61
0.44
0.728
3.46
4.69
1990-91
2.56
2.60
1.015
10.60
13.97
2000-01
6.42
5.27
0.822
27.61
28.64
2010-11
9.60
12.74
1.327
35.27
39.22
2011-12
10.18
12.28
1.207
38.50
40.92
2012-13
10.70
14.67
1.37
40.29
42.80
334
1050
3.2
12
10
Area/Production
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6
4
Area m ha
Production m t
Productivity kg/ha
Linear (Productivity kg/ha)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
2
200
0
0
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Productivity
Year
Area, Production and Productivity of Soybean
around the World
Country
Area
(m ha)
Production
(m t)
Yield
(t/ha)
USA
30.91
91.42
2.96
Brazil
23.50
69.00
2.94
Argentina
18.60
54.50
2.93
China
9.19
14.98
1.63
India
10.70 IV
Paraguay
2.68
7.20
2.69
102.17
260.85
2.55
World
14.5 V
1.37 (40%)
Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service-www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/psdgetreport.
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GREEN REVOLUTION
BREAKTHROUGH IN WHEAT IMPROVEMENT
WHY MODERNIZATION OF
AGRICULTURE?
Class III
Population Growth
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1 M yrs or more- 1st 8 Million people in 8,000 BC
10,000 yrs. – 1st 1,000 M by 1830
100 yrs
- 2nd 1,000 M by 1930
30 yrs.
- 3rd 1,000 M by 1960
15 yrs.
- 4th 1,000 M by 1975
25 yrs.
- 6 billion by early 21st century
2011
- 7 billion Oct. (6.928 b on July 01)
2025
- 9.2 billion
Global Population Explosion
Present Concerns:
Current: >7 billion
Poor: 1 billion (240 m in India)
Underweight Children:
+ 4.5 bn ?
1985-2050
+ 2.5 bn
1950-1985
2.5 bn
Severely: 180 million
Chronically: 800 million
Vitamin A deficient: 200 million
Pregnant Women:
First 4 million years
Anemia: 400 million
1/8 persons hungry
Source - Paroda, 2011
India’s Population
2050
1500 mn (expected)
2011
1210 mn
1028 mn
846 mn
548 mn
2001
1991
1971
361 mn 1951
Decennial Growth in Human
Population
• Graph
• Ship-to-mouth
• Life boat
• Paddock Brothers’ Famine 1975
Other Factors
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Developed Vs developing
Increased longevity
Antibiotics in 1950s:
Penicillin
Chloromycetin
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Industrial Revolution- strong production &
distribution base for
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Fert, pesticides, farm machinery
Knowledge & technology
Policy & investment
Developing countries followed the suit
Wheat Improvement in India
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Domesticated in West Asia
Selection of land races by generations of farmers
Scientific breeding in early 20th century
North America, Europe, Russia, Japan & Australia
India- 1905 at IARI- Pure line selection
1930-40 Hybridization – grain quality & disease
resistance- Dr. BP Pal & Assoc. –Leaders
Wheat Improvement in India-cont.
• Started at IARI in 1905- Dr. BP Pal & associates-yield, quality
& disease resistance
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NP 700 & NP 800 series
NP 823- Early Maturing, good quality suitable for rainfed
NP 824- Good yield in plains & lower hills
NP 809- Resistant to 3 rusts & loose smut through
hybridization
• Ch. Ram Dhan & SM Sikka at Govt. Agri. College & Research
Instt. Lyallpur (faislabad) developed C series wheat in Punjab - yield
3-4 t/ha
• 1947 av. Yield 700kg/ha – remained same for the last 40
yrs.
Low Productivity of Indian Wheat
Remedy of the Malady
Wheat Yield in India
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Yield
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1950-51 :6.46 MT
1960-61 : 11 MT
1963-64
1965-66: 10.4 MT1970-71: 21.8 MT-
663 kg/ha
851 kg/ha
734 kg/ha
827kg/ha
1172kg/ha
• Increase in yield not consistent
Wheat improvement - Yield barrier
• 20 varieties grown over 80 yrs. were analyzed (Kulshrestha and Jain , 1981)
-1910-60 Tall -2 per decade for six deacdes-12
-1970-80 Dwarf -4 per decade-8
Evaluated for:
-grain yield
-HI
-# effective tillers/sq. m
-plant ht.
-grain wt
-total dry matter
Tall var. showed significant differences for 1st 4 characters but did not show
significant difference in biol. yield & grain. Wt
K13 (Kanpur) and NP 165(IARI) showed significant but small improvement in yield
1940s, 50s & 60s no difference in grain yield despite concerted efforts
Significant difference recorded in var. of 1970s & 80s
Indian breeders struggled to break yield barrier over 60 yrs. But did not succeed
Wheat Improvement
Response to fertilizer
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Inadequate availability
Lack of infrastructure for prodn. & distribution
Attempt made to develop varieties for high soil fertility
Tall varieties (115 cm or more) lodged at high doses
beyond 40 Kg/ ha Nitrogen
• Need for breeding stiff strawed, lodging resistant
coupled with disease resistance & quality
• SP Kohli-Sr. wheat Breeder in early 1960s initiated work
for identifying sources of dwarfing with stiff straw but
rust resistance was top priority
Dwarf Wheat
• IARI germplasm collection screened- none of
them dwarf except 3 Italian varieties
• Funo
• Falchetto
• Mara
Lodging resistant but susceptible to RUST- less used in
breeding
rht8 gene for reduced plant height –identified in these
varieties
Italians developed famous ARDITO & released in 1916
Was widely grown in Eastern Europe & South America
Dwarf Varieties
HYV winter wheat –
Russian Scientist -PP Lukyanenko developed:
– Bezostya
– Kavkag &
– Avrora
Great Britain
Little Joss (142 cm.) in 1908
Holdfast (126 cm.) in 1935
Capelle Desperz (110 cm) in 1935
Marris Huntman (106 cm) in 1972
Armada (97 cm) in 1978
USA
Honor (120 cm) in 1920
Eroga (85 cm.) in 1973
Did not havea robust source for dwarfing but succeeded in improving
wheat yield over a long period in Western world
Dwarf Winter Wheat
• Indian wheat breeders struggling to develop dwarf
wheat varieties, scientists in Japan had found
solution way back in 1930
– Daruma- a land race- origin remains obscure – 1873
– Daruma- registered as variety in 1900
– Kihara & assoc. showed bread wheat – 3 sets of chr. in 1940s
Evolution of NORIN 10:
-Shiro(white) Daruma
-Aka (red) Daruma
Shiro Daruma X Glassy Fultz- an American wheat at Central
Agricultural Experiment Station, Nishinghara & released Fultz Daruma
Fultz Daruma X Turky Red
at Ehime Prefectual Experiment Station
in 1925- The advance progeny of this cross yielded NORIN
10 in 1932. It was released in Oct. 1935 by Inazuka
Dwarf Spring Wheat
Norin 10- semidwarf winter wheat height of 52-55 cm
 It received its dwarfing gene from Daruma- land race
selected by Japanese farmers
• Standard source of dwarfing gene throughout world
• Free from adverse effects on expression of yield
contributing characters when placed in right genetic
background
• Short internodes reduced plant height without
reducing length of earhead, # of spike bearing tillers,
& # of grains/spike
Norin 10 In USA
• Following occupation of Japan in 1945- group of scientists sent from
USA to Japan
• SC Salmon- Adviesr to USDA – sent Norin 10 to US
• USDA distributed to wheat breeders– Orville A. Vogel of Washington Agri. Exp. Stn., WSU, Pullman evolved 1st
semidwarf, HYV carrying Norin 10 outside Japan
– The variety Gaines gave a record yield of 14.5 t/ha under high fertility with
large dose of fertilizers
– Gaines, however, showed high proportion of sterile florets
– Gaines crossed with Brevor- sterility was transferred to Norin 10-Brevor
hybrid
– Further selections led to Breeding lines free from sterility
– Selection 14 crossed with 3 American varieties to introduce disease resistant
genes
– Gaines was 85 cm, Brevor 120 cm and Selection 146 cm height
– Gaines showed no lodging but Brevor showed 20% lodging
– Gaines – a winter wheat and could not be grown in subtropical conditions
Mexican Wheat
• Norman Borlaug working at CIMMYT, Mexico got
Norin 10-Brevor hybrid lines from Vogel
– 1st few crosses with elite Mexical lines – not successful due to rust
– Successful crosses showed sterile florets, shrivelled grains, poor quality &
susceptibility to rust
– Sustained efforts for next 6 yrs- winter & spring gene pools different &
showed considerable genetic divergence
– Now Borlaug had Norin 10 in spring wheat background
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Pitic 62
Inia 66
Penjamo 62
Tobari 66
Sonora 63
Ciano 67
Sonora 64
Norteno 67
Mayo 64
Cietoe Coros
Lerma Rojo 64 in 1966
Multilocation Evaluation
Mexican Wheat in India
• Rabi 1961-62
• Summer 1962
• Rabi 1962-63
-Observational Nursery from USDA
-Multiplication at Wellington
-Demonstration at IARI farm
Invitation to Borlaug to visit India & visits in March 1963
• Rabi 1963-64
• Rabi 1964-65
-Multilocation Trial 4 places
-Large Multilocation trails-155 places
• 1965- Two Mexican Lines Sonora 64 & Lerma Roho 64 A
Released for Commercial cultivation by CVRC (CSCSNRV)
Area, Production and Productivity of Wheat in
India
Area X 2.5
Prodn.x 8.5
Prody x3
Reduction in yield gap has been the main approach for
increasing wheat production
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Potential yield
Wheat yield, t/ha
5
Actual yield
4
3
2
1
0
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Year
Source: IARI/ ICAR network
Bt Cotton in India
Area covered during 2010 : 8.4 m ha
66
Incidence of malnutrition among children (< 3
years)
Wide inter-regional variations in yield
State
Foodgrain yield, 2006-07
(t/ha)
1.
Punjab
4.0
2
Tamil Nadu
2.6
3
West Bengal
2.5
4
Uttar Pradesh
2.1
5
Bihar
1.7
6
Orissa
1.4
7
Madhya Pradesh
1.2
 Focus on high potential eastern & central region for
immediate yield gains
Per capita net availability of foodgrains
(g/capita/day)
520
500
480
460
440
420
400
1971
1981
1991
2000
2007
2008