Transcript عرض تقديمي في PowerPoint

There is a great deal of internal variety in
the language that people use every day.
What is a variety?
Hudson (1996) says a variety is a set of
linguistic items with similar distribution.
According to this definition the followings
are varieties:
Canadian English, London English, …..
Language or Dialect?
- Language and ethnicity
- E.g. from china speaks Chinese
From Japan speaks Japanese
From Korea speaks Korean
Problem ?!
e.g. to be Chinese and American
Haugen (1966) says language and dialects
are ambiguous terms.
The Greek
Language is used to refer either to a single
linguistic norm or to a group of related
norms.
Dialect is used to refer to one of the
norms.
The French
un dialecte a regional variety that has an
associated literary tradition.
un patois a regional variety that lacks literary
tradition.
The English
Dialect is used both for local varieties of English,
e.g. Yorkshire dialect, and for various types of
informal , lower-class, or rural speech. >>>>>
similar to what we usually consider a dialect.
Which language do you speak? Or which dialect
do you speak?
People who speak in the same manner may
answer differently.
Gumperz (1982a) says that sociohistorical factors
play a crucial role in determining boundaries
between languages and dialects.
Examples
Hindi and Urdu in India
Serbian and Croatian in Yugoslavia
And many others
The Hindi-Urdu situation
Hindi >>>> left to right, borrows from
Sanskrit(An ancient Indic language)
Urdu >>>> right to left, draws on Arabic
Persian sources
Large political and religious differences make
much of small linguistic differences.
(difference between India and Pakistan)
So far as everyday use is concerned, therefore,
it appears that the boundary between the
spoken varieties of Hindi and Urdu is
somewhat flexible and one that changes with
circumstances.
There is considerable variety in everyday use
but somewhere in the background there is an
ideal that can be appealed to, proper Hindi or
proper Urdu.
Power and solidarity
Power requires unequal relationship between
entities( one is more important than others)
e.g. money, status, influence, or language
which is more powerful than any of its
dialects.
Solidarity is a feeling of equality which people
have with each other. They have a common
interest around which they will bond.
The Netherlands-German situation
Thai – Lao situation
The Laos understand spoken Thai and hear
Thai constantly on radio and television.
Educated Laos can also read written Thai.
However, Thais do not readily understand
spoken Lao nor do they read the written
variety. Lao is a low prestige language so far as
Thais are concerned, in contrast, Thai has high
prestige in Laos.
Unintelligible varieties of English.
See page 28.
It isn’t unusual to French translations of
American books described on their title
pages as translations from ‘American’
rather than ‘English’.
standardization
Standardization refers to the process by
which a language has been codified in some
way. The process usually involves the
development of such things as grammars,
spelling books, and dictionaries, and possibly
literature.
It requires that a measure of agreement be
achieved about what is in the language and
what is not.
The standard variety is often regarded as
the natural, proper, and fitting language of
those who use or should use it.
Once a language is standardized it becomes
possible to teach it in a deliberate manner.
It takes on ideological dimensions – social,
cultural, and sometimes political- beyond
the purely linguistic ones.
The Standardization process
Codification >>>> develop grammar,
dictionaries…..
Elaboration >>>>> the use of the standard in
areas as literature, courts, education …..
The community must agree on an idealized
norm to become the standard of the
language. >>>> problem >>>>social
Example:
Serbs and Croats were unable to agree on a
norm . their other differences reinforced
their linguistics ones.
In contrast, Malaysia and Indonesia are
trying to reduces the differences between
their languages >>>> common Islamic bond.
Standardization performs a number of
functions:
1. It unifies individuals and groups within a larger
community while at the same time separating it
from other communities.
2. Standard variety can give prestige to speakers,
marking off those who employ it from those who
do not.
3. Standardization can sometimes deliberately
undertaken quite rapidly for political reasons. e.g.
In the 19th century Finns developed their spoken
language to make it serve a complete set of
functions. They needed a standardized language to
assert their independence from both Swedes and
Russians.
Bell’s seven criteria of languages
Regional dialects
Regional= geographical area
Regional variation is an easy way to observe
variety in language.
Distinctive varieties i.e. noticeable differences
in pronunciation , in the choices and forms of
words and syntax when moving from one area
to another are usually called regional dialects.
The difference between dialect and patois:
1. Patois usually describes rural forms of
speech.
2. Patois refers to a lower strata in society.
3. A dialect usually has a wider geographical
distribution than a patois.
Regional dialect >>>>>
Village patois >>>>> acceptable
vice
versa >>>> not
Dialect and accent
Dialect when referring to regional variations
confused with accent.
Example, standard English >>> variety of
accents >>>
>>> associated with regional and social
elements.
e.g. region >>> accent of north America,
Singapore, India, Boston, New York….
Different regions >> similar in grammar
and vocabulary >> why? Speak standard
English.
Accent>> only appears in how they
pronounce what they say.
Example of accent, (RP) received pronunciation
>> it means the accent that allows one to be
received in better parts of society.
Old-fashioned, prestigious accent.
Established in the United Kingdom.
Known as the Queen’s English, Oxford English,
BBC English.
Taught to students learning English as a foreign
language.
Social dialects
The term dialect can also be used to
describe differences in speech associated
with various social groups or classes.
Problem >>> how to define social group or
social class?
Many factors that determine social position
e.g. occupation, place of residence,
education, income, ethnic origin, cultural
background, religion….
The three principal factors related to social
dialects are:
Social class
Religion
Ethnicity
Examples
1. Caste in India (a system of social stratification
or social differentiator) determines the variety of
language (dialect) a speaker uses.
2. In Baghdad, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim
inhabitants speak different varieties of
Arabic. Each group uses their variety only
within the group and use the Muslim variety
as a lingua franca among the three groups.
3. African American English in USA is
associated with a specific ethnic group. Also
Italian, Jewish ……
Styles, Registers, and beliefs
1. Speakers can adopt different styles of speaking
>>> speak formally, informally according to
circumstances.
2. Registers are sets of language items associated
with occupational or social groups. Hudson (1996)
says ‘ your dialect shows who or what you are,
whilst your register shows what you are doing’.
e.g. airline pilots, bank managers, artists……
employ different registers.
3. people still hold on to rural dialects rather
than urban dialects.
Why?
Rural dialects >>>> old, conservative.