Transcript Document

OBJECTIVES
You will understand:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Core meanings
Prototypes
The semantics of figurative language
Script semantics
You will be able to:
1.
Apply your deeper understanding of semantics to your
teaching
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
INTRODUCTION
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In this module we will look at four more aspects of semantics
that are useful to us as language teachers: core meanings;
prototypes; figurative language; and script semantics.
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
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The research done to determine the core meanings of words is
called core semantics. Core semantics is important for
language teachers for a number of reasons. First, it simply
makes us aware that defining words for our students is not
quite as simple as we would like it to be. The semantic
boundaries of words are actually quite fuzzy. This is not
necessarily a problem in everyday life. However, if people’s
lives depend upon the precise definition of a word, in medical
and legal situations for example, we need to make an effort
to clearly define the word in question. Core meanings help us
in this task. Core semantics then, forces us think about what
is essential to the definition of a word, versus what is not.
Finally, core semantics gives us a tool with which to teach our
students the variations and permutations of meaning that
occur with a single word.
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1. CORE MEANINGS
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A. Think about the core meaning of the word ‘cup’. Consider
the following ideas: Does a cup need handles? Does it need to
be cylindrical? Is it tall or short? Does it matter what you put
in a cup? Does it matter what the cup is made of? When does a
cup become a mug? When does a cup become a glass? There is
actually no right answer for this question, so just have fun
doing the analysis!
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
B. Look at the sentences below that all contain the word ‘break’.
Which sentence or sentences do you think best illustrate the core
meaning of the word ‘break’? Justify your answer using your own ideas
about the core meaning of the verb ‘break’ as well as your ideas as to
which meanings you would teach your students first. Once again, there
is no right answer for this question, just enjoy the process.
i. The waves broke on the rocks.
ii. He broke his leg.
iii. The cup broke.
iv. He was a broken man.
v. She broke his heart.
vi. He broke his word.
vii. He broke the law.
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PROTOTYPES
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Given how fuzzy word boundaries are, some researchers have
proposed enhancing definitions of word meaning with the best
example, or prototype, of that meaning. For example, if we
are considering the word bird, the best example might be a
robin. An ostrich, on the other hand, might not be a good
example of a typical bird, because it does not fly. Once we
have a prototype of something, for example a bird, other
types of birds would then be categorized as being close to the
prototype (like a sparrow) or far from the prototype, like an
ostrich. The research into prototypes is called prototype
semantics.
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Prototypes can fit into a hierarchical way of looking at words.
We have super-ordinates, which are essentially category
words. An example of a super-ordinate would be ‘bird’.
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Going down in the hierarchy one level, we have basic words.
In our ‘bird’ example, a basic level word would be a robin.
Prototypes, then, are the most common example of a basic
level word.
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Going down one more level, we have sub-basic words. In our
‘bird’ example, a sub-basic level word would be the American
Robin or another kind of robin.
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
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Here are some other interesting things about prototypes. When we ask
someone for an “off the top of your head” example of a super-ordinate
word (such as ‘bird’), the prototype (in this case ‘robin’) is usually the
first example mentioned by the majority of people.
When children are learning their first language, they typically learn the
basic level words and prototypes first, and not the super-ordinates or
sub-basic level words.
Second language learning, however, has a twist to it. It would be logical
if second language learners learned the basic level words, particularly
the prototypes, before they learned the sub-basic level words. However,
this is not always the case. If a learner is interested in the sub-basic
level subject matter, they will actually learn those words before they
learn the basic level words and prototypes. The frequency of exposure
to a word also comes into play. We particularly see learners acquire subbasic level words before basic level words and prototypes when the
learners are experts in a particular field.
For example, you will find an engineer or medical doctor who is learning
English with good knowledge of sub-basic level words, which are highly
specialized, but not basic level words or prototypes.
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Look at the chart in Task Journal 2. Independently, write the first
word that comes to mind for each word.
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FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
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Thus far in our discussion on semantics, we have been talking
about the literal meanings of words. We are now going to add
a layer of complexity to the discussion, because semantics
also encompasses the figurative meanings of words. Figurative
language is language that has a subtle or nuanced underlying
meaning, not an obvious and clear surface meaning. The
opposite of figurative language is literal language, which is
language that is meant to be interpreted exactly as it is
written.
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
The most common type of figurative language is called metaphor
in which we use something concrete and tangible (that we can
hear, smell or touch) in order to talk about something abstract or
intangible. Here are some examples of metaphors:
• My love for you grew slowly over time. (my love is like a plant
or a living thing)
• Her confidence blossomed under the loving care of her new
parents. (her confidence is like a flower)
• Your words planted an idea in my head. (the idea is like a
plant)
• He built a strong argument. (the argument is like a building)
• His hatred ate away at him year by year. (his hatred is like a
parasite or a bug or something that eats)
• Her beauty outshone everyone else’s. (her beauty is like a
light)
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If we analyze metaphors in greater detail, we can determine
their structure. Each metaphor has a source, which is the
concrete idea, and a target, which is the abstract idea that we
want to express. Thus we use ’a plant’ (a concrete concept) to
express ‘love’ (an abstract concept). If we take all of the
metaphors above, we can similarly distinguish the source and the
target.
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
There are other types of figurative language that semantic researchers
look at. These include:
1. Similes, in which one thing is said to be like or similar to another
thing. For example, “Her lips are like roses” or “His eyes are as grey as
a dove” or “His roar was like that of a lion.”
2. Synecdoche (si-nek-duh-kee), in which we use a part of something
to mean the whole, or the whole of something to talk about the part.
For example, we can use ‘grey beards’ to talk about ‘old men’.
3. Metonymy, in which something closely connected to a thing is used
to refer to the whole thing. For example, ‘the crown’ is used to talk
about ‘the queen’, and ‘the bench’ is used to talk about ‘the judge’.
4. Personification, in which we talk about objectives as if they were
people. For example, we use expressions like ‘the paper said’ and ‘the
book tells us’ even though ‘the paper’ and ‘the book’ are not people.
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
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Figurative language also includes irony (the use of words to
convey a meaning that is the opposite of the literal meaning
of the words, often accomplished through tone), hyperbole
(an exaggeration), oxymoron (two words that are a
contradiction of each other), and understatement.
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Native speakers of a language take metaphors and other
figurative language for granted. It is only when native
speakers try to explain figurative language to non-native
speakers that they realize how culturally based figurative
language is. In fact, the pervasiveness of figurative language
in everyday conversation is one reason why it is impossible to
teach a language without making any reference to culture.
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Look at Task Journal 3
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A. What concrete concept (or source) can you use to express the
following abstract concepts (or targets)? Provide an example
sentence. The first one has been done for you as an example.
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SCRIPT SEMANTICS
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Semantics does not stop merely at the word level. Our word
choices are often governed by the situation in which we are
communicating. Script semantics is a field of semantics that
looks at the meaning choices we make when we follow a
template or script for communicating in a particular situation
or event. In script semantics we first look at what the roles
are in a particular situation, what props are used and what
actions take place. We then look at the meaning choices made
by each of the participants in the script at different points,
and the language that can be used to convey those meaning
choices.
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
We will demonstrate this with a simple example—greetings
between two people who know each other well. The roles are:
greeter and person being greeted. There are no props. The
action is either a handshake, a hug, or kissing on the cheek,
depending upon the genders involved and the degree of
familiarity the two participants wish to express. The meaning
conveyed is that the two are happy to see each other. The
participants also convey information about what has happened in
their lives recently. Language used to convey this meaning is: it’s
good to see you again, it’s been a long time, how have you been,
and so on.
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
Let’s take a fun example, Trick or Treat at Halloween. The roles
are: children dressed in different costumes and homeowners.
The props are: candy or other treats, some kind of bag for the
children to put the candy in, and different costumes. The actions
are: the children knocking on the door, the homeowners opening
the door, the children holding out their bags for candy and the
homeowners putting the candy in. The meaning conveyed
throughout this encounter is that the children would like some
candy and the homeowners are happy to give out candy.
Language used includes: trick or treat, here you go, I like your
costume, thank you for the candy and so on.
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
Script semantics has become popular with language teachers
involved in teaching English for Specific Purposes, such as English
for hospitality and tourism, English for medicine, and English for
engineering. Teachers of these courses are realizing that most of
the communication in professional settings is based upon
culturally-agreed upon scripts. A language learner with a large
vocabulary will not be able to communicate successfully if they
do not know the script required in a particular professional
situation. This is exactly the stumbling block that many
professionals using English as their second language are
encountering. Many courses for professionals, then, focus on
scripts and the meanings and language required by those scripts.
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute
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Complete 4 in your Task Journal.
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Task Journals can be submitted via email to
[email protected] (preferred) or printed and handed in.
ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute