EOC Essentials

Language that appeals to a reader’s sense of sight, hearing, touch, smell, or taste.

The crisp autumn wind felt cold on his wrist and almost tasted of ripe apples.

Language that requires examination to understand the author’s true meaning, meaning that goes beyond the literal or obvious. What follows are literary devices that require examination to understand their deeper meaning as opposed to the literal, surface meaning of the words that form them.

There are three types of irony: verbal, situational, and dramatic. Each type involves a discrepancy (a distinct difference between two things).

In situational irony, a discrepancy exists between the reader’s expectations of a situation and the actual outcome of the situation.

The Most Dangerous Game: We expect a hunter to hunt an animal; however, in this story, the hunter (Rainsford) becomes the hunted.

The Lottery: We expect a lottery winner to win money; however, in this story, the lottery winner wins death. She gets stoned to death.

The assassination attempt on Pres. Ronald Reagan: When John Hinckley attempted to assassinate President Reagan, all of his shots initially missed the President; however, a bullet ricocheted off the bullet-proof Presidential limousine and struck Reagan in the chest. Thus, a vehicle made to protect the President from gunfire was partially responsible for his being shot

In dramatic irony, a discrepancy exists between what the reader or audience knows to be true and what one of the characters believes to be true. In other words, the reader/audience knows something the character does not. This knowledge often leads the reader/audience to assign a very different meaning or significance to the character’s words or actions than what the character intended.

In Lamb to the Slaughter, the reader knows that the weapon is literally under the police detective’s nose. The policeman is actually eating the weapon, the leg of lamb, as he says, “It’s probably right under our noses.”

In verbal irony, a discrepancy (distinct difference) exists between what the speaker says and what he actually means. Verbal irony may take the form of sarcasm, overstatement, or understatement.

Your perpetually late friend arrives thirty minutes late and causes the two of you to miss the movie you were supposed to go see. You say to her, “Once again, your punctuality saves the day!” You mean the opposite of what you are saying. You’re being ironic by employing

sarcasm.

You earn straight A’s on your report card and your dad says, “Not bad.” He really means, “Awesome! Fantastic!” He is being ironic by employing

understatement.

Your computer freezes (again) while you are downloading a hilarious video you really want to watch. You scream, “I am going to throw this computer out the window!” You’re not really going to throw your $500 computer out the window. You just mean that you’re really frustrated with it. You’re being ironic by employing

overstatement.

A bitter expression of disapproval that tends to mean the opposite of what the words actually say.

Also called HYPERBOLE, overstatement is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device.

A form of speech which contains an expression of less strength than what would be expected.

The substitution of a polite or milder phrase for a harsher or more offensive expression.

Euphemisms:

Euphemism

If a woman is “in a family way,”

What is really meant

she is pregnant.

If a girl is “going to powder my nose,” she is going to use the toilet.

If you are going to the “restroom,” you are going to the toilet.

If person “passed away,” If a solider was killed by “friendly fire,” he died.

He was killed by a fellow soldier, someone on his side.

In literature, a paradox is a contradictory, illogical, or absurd statement that contains some element of truth.

We are willing to fight for peace.

While this statement appears to contradict itself, sometimes one must fight to ensure peace.

Nature’s first green is gold.

-- Robert Frost, “Nothing Gold Can Stay” At first glance, you wonder how green can be gold. However, when you dig deeper, you realize that gold is symbolizing perfection, so it does make sense.

“What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.” -- George Bernard Shaw While your initial reaction is that this statement is absurd or illogical, Shaw’s point/truth is that youth can only truly be appreciated by someone who has lost it. It echoes the idea that a person only truly values something once he’s lost it.

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way.

--Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities The first line of A Tale of Two Cities, by Charles Dickens, is the most famous line in literature. It is also the most famous paradox in literature. It appears contradictory; however, upon examination, we can find some truth in the words. In every era, our own time, the time of Dickens, the time of the French Revolution (the setting of A Tale of Two Cities), there are those who claim, “We’ve never had it so good.” There are also those who suffer and struggle to make ends meet. Some people think, “Things are going great in this country!” Others worry that our civilization could collapse on its decaying moral foundation. A person’s experiences and perspective will determine the period to be the best of times or the worst of times. Some will see it as a time of wisdom, light, and hope; others will see it as a time of foolishness, darkness, and despair.

An oxymoron brings together two contradictory words to create a special effect. An oxymoron is a compressed paradox.

A deafening silence

“Deafening” usually means very loud, so in this case, a very loud silence is contradictory. A reader, however, would understand the intended meaning: an intense or meaningful silence.

Bittersweet

Bitter and sweet come together to suggest something that is both pleasant and regretful or painful. Running into an ex could be bittersweet as it may bring mixed emotions.

Controlled chaos

Chaos is defined as an utter state of confusion or disorder (uncontrolled). By pairing “chaos” with the contradictory word “controlled,” you can suggest a situation that appears disorganized but actually manages to work in an orderly fashion.

A comparison of two apparently unlike things using like, as, than, or resembles.

"Life is like an onion: You peel it off one layer at a time, and sometimes you weep." (Carl Sandburg) "[H]e looked about as inconspicuous as a tarantula on a slice of angel food." (Raymond Chandler, Farewell, My Lovely, 194 "I'm happier than a tornado in a trailer park." - Mater, Cars The seven-layer sandwich resembled a skyscraper.

A figure of speech that makes a comparison either by stating that one thing is something else, or by implying, through substitution, that one thing is something else.

Here are some rather boring metaphors that we hear everyday:

Her words rang true.

By substituting “rang” for “sounded,” the speaker or writer has created a metaphor that compares her true words to the clear sound of a bell.

You’re the light of my life.

While you don’t literally provide light in her life, you are a crucial part of her life.

"The rain came down in long knitting needles." --Enid Bagnold, National Velvet Through substitution, raindrops are being compared to long knitting needles. The metaphor suggests that the raindrops are long and sharp or stinging against the skin, so we can infer that it’s probably raining hard. A strong wind has probably created a hard, driving rain.

"Between the lower east side tenements the sky is a snotty handkerchief.“ --Marge Piercy, “The Butt of Winter” In this very direct form of metaphor, the author is saying that one object (the sky between low income, urban apartment buildings) is a snotty handkerchief. By creating this metaphor, she has painted a very ugly image of the living environment of the lower class.

"Memory is a crazy woman that hoards colored rags and throws away food .“ --Austin O'Malley, Keystones of Thought In this metaphor, by comparing memory to a crazy woman who hoards trash and throws away food, the author is commenting on the fact that people seem to remember the bad things (colored rags) that happen to them and forget the good (nourishing like food) things.

“They carry bundles of garments from the factories to the tenements, little beasts of burden, robbed of school life that they may work for us.” Through substitution, Kelley used the above metaphor in her speech to compare children to worker animals. She was suggesting that we were working our children much like we worked our farm animals. By calling the children beasts of burden, the author was hoping to evoke images of horses pulling plows or mules loaded down with packages.

An analogy, like a simile, compares two different things by identifying points of similarity. The difference is that an analogy usually identifies several points of similarity and is created for the purpose of conceptual clarity.

Example:

Flash memory chips work like a chalkboard, in that, when information is written on it, the information remains present even when the power is turned off. Only when the information is deliberately erased will it disappear. And like the chalkboard, flash memory can be written on and erased many times.

Attaching human characteristics to something that is not human.

“The wind wandering by night rocks the wheat.” --Pat Mora in her poem Meciendo.

The wind does not actually wander, nor does it rock wheat like a human would a baby.

“the muttering and growling of the sea breaking on a rocky shore” “the sea licked greedy lips in the shadows” The sea does not actually growl and mutter, nor does it have lips. Human characteristics have been assigned to the sea.

Both of these examples of personification come from The Most Dangerous Game by Richard Connell

Symbolism is when the author uses an object or reference to represent an idea in order to add deeper meaning to a story. Symbolism in literature can be subtle or obvious, used sparingly or heavy-handedly. An author may repeatedly use the same object to convey deeper meaning or may use variations of the same object to create an overarching mood or feeling. Symbolism is often used to support a literary theme in a subtle manner.

“A Man Saw A Ball of Gold” In this poem, the ball of gold symbolizes man’s desire or goal. He climbs for it, but when he achieves it, he notices that it is only clay. However, when he climbs back down and looks up again, it appears gold again. The poet tells us that it was always gold. The poet’s use of gold to represent something valuable and worth having conveys the poem’s meaning that people often do not appreciate what they have, only what they don’t.

Repetition of initial sounds of words or stressed syllables in close proximity to one another.

A Dr. Seuss example: Big B little b what begins with B? Barber, baby, bubble, and a bumblebee.

Something a little less obvious:

"A moist young moon hung above the mist of a neighboring meadow."

--Vladimir Nabokov, Conclusive Evidence, 1951

"[S]he had no room for g aiety and ease. She had spent the g olden time in g rudging its g oing."

--Dorothy Parker, "The Lovely Leave"

Both tone and mood are developed through the author’s diction or word choice. However, it is important not to confuse these two literary elements.

Tone is the author’s attitude toward his subject and/or audience. Tone is different from mood because whereas tone describes how the author feels about his subject or audience, mood describes how the reader feels when reading the story. Tone reflects the writer’s feelings while mood reflects the reader’s.

EXAMPLES TONE WORDS AMUSED

AUTHORITATIVE CONFIDENT REFLECTIVE HOPEFUL LIGHTHEARTED PASSIONATE PROUD REVERENT SYMPATHETIC NOSTALGIC CANDID WISTFUL

ACCUSATORY

BITTER CAUSTIC CONTEMPTUOUS CRITICAL CYNICAL DISINTERESTED HAUGHTY INDIGNANT INFLAMMATORY OUTRAGED SOMBER REGRETFUL

HUMOROUS

INSOLENIT IRONIC IRREVERENT MOCKING PATRONIZING RIDICULING SARCASTIC SARDONIC SATIRIC SCORNFUL TEASING WHIMSICAL

The atmosphere the author creates through his word choice. The mood of a story affects/reflects the reader’s emotions about the story. Setting plays a large part in determining the mood of the story.

A FEW MOOD WORDS HOPEFUL

JOYOUS HARMONIOUS PLAYFUL OPTIMISTIC NOSTALGIC ROMANTIC TRANQUIL FANCIFUL FESTIVE SENTIMENTAL REVERENT DETERMINED

CONFINING

FOREBODING GLOOMY HOPELESS HOSTILE SUSPENSEFUL TENSE SOMBER MYSTERIOUS MELANCHOLY UNEASY CLINICAL DEPRESSING

The dictionary definition of a word.

An idea or feeling associated with the word, in addition to its literal or primary meaning.

Have you ever wondered why we call a dictionary a dictionary?

Well, wonder no more. It will all make sense once you learn the below definition.

The choice and use of words and phrases in speech or writing.

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

A word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language

A word or phrase that has the opposite meaning of another word or phrase in the same language

The central character in a narrative literary work, around whom the main conflict revolves.

A person or force in society or nature that opposes the protagonist.

A literary or dramatic character who undergoes an important inner change, as a change in personality or attitude. Ex. Ebenezer Scrooge is a dynamic character

A literary or dramatic character who undergoes little or no inner change; a character who does not grow or develop.

The standpoint or perspective from which the story is told. The point of view addresses the question of WHO is the narrator (the person telling the story). The trustworthiness of the narrator can come into question, depending on the point of view.

1 st person point of view occurs when the narrator is a character in the story. The narrator refers to himself as “I.” The veracity (or truthfulness) of the narrator must be viewed critically when you have a 1 st person point of view.

The 3 rd person point of view has a narrator who is outside the story looking in. The narrator tells the story in terms of “he” and “she.” The 3 rd person point of view narrator can be objective, limited, or omniscient.

The 3 rd person omniscient narrator can see inside the minds of all the characters. He knows what everyone is thinking. Omniscient literally means “all knowing.” Consequently, we get to hear the thoughts of the characters.

The 3 rd person limited narrator can only see into the mind of one or two characters in the story. He has limited knowledge of the what the characters are thinking. He is limited to the thoughts of only one or two characters .

The 3 rd person objective narrator has no inside information whatsoever. This narrator only relates what it sees and hears. This narrator cannot read the thoughts of any of the characters. This is an excellent point of view for stories with surprise endings that require the reader to be out of the loop.

The Lottery by Shirley Jackson used 3 rd person objective point of view. Anything else would have given away the ending or made the narration unbelievable. The characters would have naturally been thinking about the outcome of the lottery.

FORESHADOWING

is the use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in literature.

FLASHBACK

in literature and dramatic media, an interjected scene that takes the narrative back in time from the current point

ALLUSION

a brief reference, explicit or indirect, to a person, place or event, or to another literary work or passage". In Robert Frost’s “Nothing Gold Can Stay,” he alludes to the story of Adam and Eve when he writes, “so Eden fell to grief.”