Transcript Document

Understanding
Bulletin 1508 and
Standard
Psychoeducational
Evaluations
Gale Delatte, L.C.S.W., Social Work Consultant
Traci W. Olivier, M.S., Clinical Associate
The Neuropsychology Center of Louisiana
April 25, 2015
Understanding Bulletin
1508 Requirements
Gale Delatte, L.C.S.W.
The Laws
IDEA (Federal Law 94-142)
Louisiana State Law
R.S.17:1941
Pupil Appraisal Handbook
(Bulletin 1508)
504
Accommodations
How the Laws Relate
("Guidelines for educators," 2010)
What is IDEA?
• Federal Law 94-142 also known as the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA)
• Began in 1975
• Purpose: To provide federal funding to the States to ensure
free and appropriate public education for students with
disabilities.
• Who qualifies: autism, deafness, deaf-blindness, hearing
impairment, mental retardation, multiple disabilities,
orthopedic impairment, other health impairment, emotional
disturbance, specific learning disability, speech or language
impairment, traumatic brain injury, and visual impairment
• Enforced by the U.S. Office of Special Education Programs
(OSEP) and the State as the enforcement arm of OSEP
• Also provides guidelines for the States for students with
disabilities.
("Guidelines for educators," 2010)
What is Louisiana Law R.S.17:1941?
• It is a revised statute stating that every student, even those
with exceptionalities, that is a resident of the state of
Louisiana shall receive free and appropriate education.
– Free and Appropriate Education (FAPE) mandates that all
students have access to general education and specialized
educational services.
– FAPE also mandates that children with disabilities receive free
services and support that are also provided for non-disabled
children.
– FAPE encourages schools to provide these free services to all
children, disabled and non-disabled, in the general education
setting as much as possible.
(NCLD Editorial Team)
IDEA vs. Section 504
(Council for Exceptional Children, 2002)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
IDEA:
The Individuals with
Disabilities Education
Improvement Act (IDEA)
Education Act
State, Local, and Federal
Funds
Strict, specific eligibility
criteria
Individualized Education
Program (IEP)
Centers on the education of
students with disabilities from
preschool to graduation only
(from ages 3 to 21)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Section 504:
From Section 504 of
Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Civil Rights Law
No federal funding
Less specific eligibility
criteria/Fewer federal
regulations
Accommodations/Services
Incorporates the lifespan and
protects the rights of persons
with disabilities in many areas
of their lives, including
employment, public access to
buildings, transportation, and
education.
Additional Information on Section 504
• “Is a civil rights law that protects the rights of individuals with
disabilities in programs and activities that receive federal
financial assistance from the U.S. Department of Education.”
("Guidelines for educators," 2010)
• Who qualifies: Individuals who fall under the definition of
disabled
• A student who receives 504 accommodations does not receive
an IEP at the same time. Those students who receive 504
accommodations may not be labeled as, or qualify for,
exceptional student services (ESS).
• Typically, the guidance counselor will write the 504 plan for
the student.
Pupil Appraisal Handbook
• Also known as Bulletin 1508
• What is it: A handbook on how to conduct
evaluations for students who are suspected of
being exceptional and needing special
education and/or services.
• Purpose: It determines eligibility of the
student for special education and/or services.
• Link: http://bese.louisiana.gov/documentsresources/policies-bulletins
("Bulletin 1508 -," 2009, p.1)
Specific Learning Disabilities
• What is it: A disorder in one or more of the
psychological processes involved with the
understanding or usage of language, spoken
or written.
• Examples of Specific Learning Disabilities
(SLD): Perceptual disabilities, brain injury,
minimal brain dysfunction (i.e., Nonverbal
Learning Disability [NLD]), dyslexia, and
developmental aphasia.
("Bulletin 1508 -," 2009, p.20)
SLD - Criteria for Eligibility
SLD
Learning problems that
are the result of:
• Visual, Hearing, or
Motor disability
• Mental disability
• Emotional
disturbance
• Environmental,
cultural, or economic
disadvantage
("Bulletin 1508 -," 2009, p.20)
SLD - Criteria for Eligibility
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Comprehensive and documented review of evidencebased intervention(s)
Areas of inadequate achievement include:
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Oral expression,
Listening comprehension,
Written expression,
Basic reading skills,
Reading fluency skills,
Reading comprehension,
Mathematics calculation, or
Mathematics problem solving
("Bulletin 1508," 2009, p.20)
SLD - Criteria for Eligibility
• Ensure the child is getting appropriate
instruction in reading and math
– Instruction was provided in a general education
classroom
– Student was provided explicit and systematic
instruction
– Education was provided by qualified personnel
– Documentation of student progress provided to
parents
("Bulletin 1508," 2009, p.21)
SLD - Criteria for Eligibility
("Bulletin 1508 -," 2009, p.21)
• Evidence of pattern of strengths and low
achievement
– Low achievement in intervention is greater than 1.5
standard deviation (SD) below the average for grades 1
and 2; greater than 2 SD below the average for grades
3-12
– Strengths no more than 0.5 SD below the average for
grades 1 and 2; no more than 1 SD below the average
for grades 3-12.
– If strengths and weaknesses are not clearly established,
a full explanation and justification is required.
SLD - Criteria for Eligibility
• Evaluation components:
 Description and review of
screening
 Review of cumulative
records
 Review of pertinent reports
 Review of the
intervention(s)
 Systematic student
observation(s)
 Interview with the student
 Interview with core subject
teacher
 Family interview conducted
by a school social worker or
other qualified pupil
appraisal staff
 Interview with the referral
source
 Educational assessment
 Functional behavior
assessment
 Review and analysis of
discrepancies
("Bulletin 1508 -," 2009, p.10)
SLD - Criteria for Eligibility
• Additional procedures:
 The student’s general education teacher must serve on the team
 Student must be observed in the regular classroom setting
 Evaluation team review and analyze intervention(s)
 Formal educational assessment
 Psychological assessment by a Certified School Psychologist
 Speech/language assessment
 Assessment by a physician, neurologist, or neuropsychologist
("Bulletin 1508 -," 2009, p.21)
SLD - Errors Commonly Made
• Lack of strengths and weaknesses
• Lack of interventions
• General education teacher not on evaluation
team
• No speech/language assessment if there is a
weakness in oral expression or listening
comprehension
• Cannot report Standard Scores (can use
percentiles and SD)
(Teams Intervening Early to Reach All Students, 2013)
Other Health Impairments
• What is it: Having limited strength, energy, or
alertness, including increased alertness to
environmental stimuli, resulting in limited
alertness in the educational setting due to
chronic or acute health problems.
• Examples of Other Health Impairments (OHI):
asthma, attention deficit disorder or
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,
diabetes, epilepsy, leukemia, or Tourette
syndrome.
("Bulletin 1508," 2009, p.19)
OHI - Criteria for Eligibility
• Reduced efficiency in schoolwork
• Disability limits one or more of the student’s major life
activities:
 Caring for self
 Performing manual tasks
 Walking
 Seeing
 Hearing
 Speaking
 Breathing
 Learning
 Working
("Bulletin 1508 -," 2009, p.19)
OHI - Criteria for Eligibility
• Impaired environmental functioning
that negatively affects educational
performance
• Documentation of interventions that
did not modify the behavior
("Bulletin 1508 -," 2009, p.19)
OHI - Criteria for Eligibility
• Evaluation components:
 Description and review of
screening
 Review of cumulative records
 Review of pertinent reports
 Review of the intervention(s)
 Systematic student
observation(s)
 Interview with the student
 Interview with core subject
teacher
 Family interview conducted
by a school social worker or
other qualified pupil appraisal
staff
 Interview with the referral
source
 Educational assessment
 Functional behavior
assessment
 Review and analysis of
discrepancies
("Bulletin 1508 -," 2009, p.10)
OHI - Criteria for Eligibility
• Additional procedures:
– Medical examination conducted with the previous
12 months
–Behavioral impairment
•Review of functional behavior assessment
•Review of documented intervention that did not modify
the behavior difficulty
•Review of effectiveness of intervention
–Family interview
–Additional assessments
("Bulletin 1508 -," 2009, p.20)
OHI – Errors Commonly Made
• Medical Exam is missing:
– Description of impairment
– Medical implications for Educational Instruction
– Medical implications for Physical Education
• No description of intervention for
impairments with behavior difficulties.
(Teams Intervening Early to Reach All Students, 2013)
Want to Learn More?
Useful Links
Standard
Psychoeducational
Evaluations
Traci W. Olivier, M.S.
Learning Disability Diagnoses
• Specific Learning Disabilities
Diagnostic
Code
DSM-IV Description
ICD-9 Description
315.00
Reading Disorder
Reading Disorder, Unspecified
315.1
Mathematics Disorder
Specified Arithmetical Disorder
315.2
Disorder of Written Expression Other Specified Learning Difficulties
Other Diagnoses of Concern
• Non-verbal Learning Disability (NLD)
• No formal diagnostic code available at this time, but the
disorder has been identified in the literature
• Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• DSM uses the term “ADHD” while ICD uses “ADD”
Non-verbal Learning Disability
• Primary areas of concern include
• Deficits in information processing & organizational skills
• Poor visual-spatial and sensory functioning
• Significant impairment of social interactions and
pragmatic language development
• Common strengths include
• Verbal language production beyond age level
• Excellent vocabulary
• Good reliance on learning and memory of auditory
information
Stewart (2002) p. 9
Non-verbal Learning Disability
For more information,
consult Stewart (2002)
Reading Disabilities
• Processes Involved in Reading
– Phonological
• Difficulty breaking down words into phonological parts
• Phonological = “sound”
– Grapheme/Morpheme/Orthographic
• Grapheme – ABC’s
• Morphemes – words or units of meaning
• Orthography – writing system (i.e., rules, etc.)
– Fluency, Timing, and Retrieval Speed
• How efficient and fast one can read and retrieve information
(Hale & Fiorello, 2004)
Factors Affecting Reading Fluency
• Several factors impact a child’s ability to read at an
efficient pace:
• Proportion of words recognized as morphemes or
orthographic units
• Speed variations in sight word processing
• Processing speed during novel word identification
• Use of context clues to facilitate word identification
• Speed of semantic access of word meanings
(Hale & Fiorello, 2004, p. 190)
Math Disabilities
• Procedural elements
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Use of developmentally immature procedures
Frequent errors in execution of procedures
Poor understanding of procedural concepts
Difficulties sequencing the multiple steps
(Geary, 2003)
Math Disabilities
• Semantic memory
• Difficulties retrieving mathematical facts, such as
answers to simple arithmetic problems
• High error rate when facts are recalled
• Retrieval errors are often associated with numbers
in the problem
• Correct retrieval methods are unsystematic
(Geary, 2003)
Math Disabilities
• Visuospatial aspects
• Difficulties in spatial representation of numbers and
other math information and relationships
• Frequent misinterpretation or misunderstanding of
visual-spatial information
(Geary, 2003)
Written Expression Disabilities
• Spelling is an important element of written language
• Polloway & Smith (1999) identified common error
patterns in children with spelling difficulties:
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Letter additions
Letter omissions
Letter reversals
Sequencing errors
Consonant substitutions
Vowel substitutions
(Hale & Fiorello, 2004, pp. 225-226)
Written Expression Disabilities
• Handwriting is also an aspect of written expression
• Mercer & Mercer (2001) discussed aspects of
handwriting that should be examined in evaluation:
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Letter shape (letter slant/changes)
Letter size (large, small, not uniform)
Letter spacing (crowding, too much)
Letter alignment (not on line)
Line quality (slant/directional issues)
(Hale & Fiorello, 2004, pp. 230-231)
Written Expression Disabilities
• Psychoeducational evaluations of Written Expression
Disorders should focus on the following (Mercer &
Mercer, 2001):
• Content (accuracy/ideas/organization)
• Structure (grammatical correctness ratio/errors)
• Vocabulary (type token ratio/diversification
index/unusual words)
• Syntax (sentence type variety/thought unit length)
• Fluency (average sentence length/length of
sample)
(Hale & Fiorello, 2004, pp. 235)
Attentional Disorders
• ADHD can have a profound impact on a child’s learning
• Oftentimes, deficits in Working Memory and Processing
Speed are exhibited, both of which are crucial elements
needed to succeed in an academic setting
• Working Memory – a higher order cognitive function that
utilizes immediate memory, multi-tasking abilities, shifting,
and mental manipulation of information.
• Processing Speed – the rate at which a child’s brain
processes information.
Attentional Disorders
• ADHD can have a profound impact on a child’s learning
• Oftentimes, deficits in Working Memory and Processing
Speed are exhibited, both of which are crucial elements
needed to succeed in an academic setting
• Working Memory – a higher order cognitive function that
utilizes immediate memory, multi-tasking abilities, shifting,
and mental manipulation of information.
• Processing Speed – the rate at which a child’s brain
processes information.
Working
Memory
Neuropsychological Components
of Academic Success
Cognitive
Efficiency
Processing
Speed
Academic
Success
Working Memory & Education
• Working Memory is involved in, but not limited to,
the following educational processes:
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Reading and Listening Comprehension
Language Comprehension
Learning to Spell
Vocabulary Learning
Following Directions
Note-taking/Test-taking
Writing
Complex Language
Nemeth et al. (2008)
Working Memory
Time Frame:
~ 3 seconds!
Retrieved from: Richardson et al. (1996, p. 56) and http://universe-review.ca/I10-86-working.jpg
Psychoeducational Evaluations
• Comprehensive evaluations include assessment of the
following domains:
1. Intellectual Functioning
2. Educational Functioning
3. Attentional Functioning
4. Executive Functioning
5. Behavioral and Social Functioning
6. Affective and Personality Functioning
Understanding
Psychological Test Scores
& Evaluation Procedures
Qualitative Ranges
• The following guidelines are often used, but final
interpretation is determined by the psychometric
properties of the test and the examiner.
• Standard Scores
85-115 =
Average
(encompassing Low & High Average)
• Subtest Scores
7-13 =
Average
(encompassing Low & High Average)
• Percentiles
16-84 =
Average
(encompassing Low & High Average)
Learning Disabilities - Criteria
• DSM-IV criteria – “ when the individual’s achievement on
individually administered, standardized tests in reading,
mathematics, or written expression is substantially below
that expected for age, schooling, and level of intelligence
… usually defined as a discrepancy of more than two
standard deviations between achievement and IQ”.
• Discrepancy criteria frequently defined by law or school
board policy.
• Louisiana, for example, does not use IQ-Achievement
discrepancies, although they may be included in the
report.
“Teams Intervening Early to Reach All Students,” (2013); McCue (2010)
SLD - Criteria for Eligibility
("Bulletin 1508," 2009, p.21)
• Evidence of pattern of strengths and low
achievement
– Low achievement in intervention is greater than 1.5
standard deviation (SD) below the average for grades 1
and 2; greater than 2 SD below the average for grades
3-12
– Strengths no more than 0.5 SD below the average for
grades 1 and 2; no more than 1 SD below the average
for grades 3-12.
– If strengths and weaknesses are not clearly established,
a full explanation and justification is required.
Evaluation Measures
• The following are examples of objective, scientifically valid
instruments that may be used in an evaluation of
suspected learning disability (and attentional disorders):
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edition
(WISC-IV)
• Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 2nd Edition
• Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJ-III-A)
• Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, 3rd Edition
(ITPA-3)
• Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA)
• Continuous performance test
Psychoeducational Evaluations
• The following are generally included in standard
psychoeducational evaluations, in addition to
standardized testing measures:
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Clinical Interview
Records Review (if applicable)
Behavioral Observations
Parent and Teacher Reports
Classroom Observations
WISC-IV (IQ measure)
• Four index scores (VCI, PRI, WMI, PSI) and a Full Scale IQ (FSIQ)
• Index Scores = Composite or Standard Scores
• Subtest Scores = Scaled Scores
VERBAL COMPREHENSION
INDEX (VCI) SUBTESTS
SKILLS MEASURED
Similarities
Measures verbal reasoning and concept formation; involves
auditory comprehension, memory, distinction between
nonessential and essential features, and verbal comprehension.
Vocabulary
Comprehension
Information
Word Reasoning
Measures knowledge of word meaning and involves the ability to
express these meanings verbally.
Measures verbal reasoning and conceptualization, verbal
comprehension and expression, the ability to evaluate and use past
experience, and the ability to demonstrate practical information.
Measures general knowledge, associative thinking, and the ability
to comprehend; indicative of interests and reading background.
Measures verbal comprehension, analogical and general reasoning
ability, verbal abstraction, domain knowledge, the ability to
integrate and synthesize different types of information, and ability
to generate alternative concepts.
WISC-IV (IQ measure)
PERCEPTUAL
REASONING INDEX (PRI)
SUBTESTS
SKILLS MEASURED
Block Design
Measures the ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, and reproduce
abstract designs; involves nonverbal concept formation, visual
perception and organization, simultaneous processing, visual-motor
coordination, learning, and the ability to separate figure and ground in
visual stimuli.
Picture Concepts
Measures abstract, categorical reasoning ability.
Matrix Reasoning
Measures visual information processing and abstract reasoning skills.
Object Assembly
Measures the ability to see spatial relationships and to synthesize
concrete parts into meaningful wholes; involves visual motor
coordination.
Picture Completion
Measures perceptual organization, concentration, and the ability to
differentiate essential from nonessential details; requires the
identification of missing details in pictures.
WISC-IV (IQ measure)
WORKING MEMORY INDEX
(WMI) SUBTESTS
SKILLS MEASURED
Digit Span
Measures the auditory short-term memory, sequencing skills,
attention, and concentration. Digit Span Forward involves rote
learning and memory, attention, encoding, and auditory
processing. Digit Span Backward involves working memory,
transformation of information, mental manipulation, and
visuospatial imaging.
Letter Number
Sequencing
Measures sequencing, mental manipulation, attention, short
term auditory memory, visuospatial imaging, and processing
speed.
Arithmetic
Measures mental manipulation, concentration, attention, short
and long term memory, numerical reasoning ability, and mental
alertness. It may also measure sequencing, fluid reasoning, and
logical reasoning.
WISC-IV (IQ measure)
PROCESSING SPEED INDEX
(PSI) SUBTESTS
SKILLS MEASURED
Coding
Measures processing speed, short term memory, learning ability,
visual perception, visual-motor coordination, visual scanning
ability, cognitive flexibility, attention, and motivation.
Symbol Search
Measures processing speed, short term visual memory, visualmotor coordination, cognitive flexibility, visual discrimination,
and concentration.
Cancellation
Measures processing speed, visual selective attention, vigilance,
and visual neglect.
WJ-III-A (Academic measure)
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Several Index Scores and a Total Achievement Score
Index Scores & Total = Composite or Standard Scores
Subtest Scores = Scaled Scores
Age Equivalent & Grade Equivalent Scores may also be provided
Broad Reading
Letter-Word Identification
Reading Fluency
Passage Comprehension
Basic Reading Skills
Letter-Word Identification
Word Attack
Measures reading decoding, reading speed, and the ability to
comprehend connected discourse while reading.
Measures the ability to identify sight vocabulary and to apply
phonic and structural analysis skills
Reading Comprehension
Passage Comprehension
Reading Vocabulary
Measures comprehension, vocabulary, and reasoning.
Broad Mathematics
Calculation
Math Fluency
Applied Problems
Measures problem solving, number facility, automaticity, and
reasoning.
WJ-III-A (academic measure)
Math Calculation Skills
Calculation
Math Fluency
Mathematics Reasoning
Applied Problems
Quantitative Concepts
Measures computational skills and knowledge of
mathematical concepts and vocabulary
Measures problem solving, analysis, reasoning, and
vocabulary.
Broad Written Language
Spelling
Writing Fluency
Writing Samples
Basic Writing Skills
Spelling
Measures both the spelling of single-word responses,
fluency of production, and quality of expression.
Measures knowledge of punctuation and capitalization,
spelling, and word usage and the ability to detect
and correct errors in spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, and word usage in written passages
Written Expression
Writing Fluency
Writing Samples
Measures written expression skills.
WJ-III-A (academic measure)
Oral Language
Story Recall
Understanding Directions
Measures linguistic competency, listening ability,
and comprehension.
Academic Skills
Letter-Word Identification
Calculation
Spelling
Academic Knowledge
Academic Knowledge
Phoneme/Grapheme Knowledge
Word Attack
Spelling of Sounds
Oral Language
Story Recall
Understanding Directions
Measures reading decoding, math calculation,
and spelling of single-word responses.
Measures range of scientific knowledge, social
studies knowledge, and cultural knowledge.
Measures proficiency with phonetic
generalizations, as well as common
orthographic patterns in both decoding
(reading) and encoding (spelling).
Measures linguistic competency, listening ability,
and comprehension.
ITPA-3 (language measure)
• Several Composite Scores (Global and Specific Domains)
• Composite Scores = Standard Scores
• Subtest Scores = Scaled Scores
• Age Equivalent & Grade Equivalent Scores may be provided
ITPA-3 (language measure)
Spoken Language Subtests
The examiner says a four-part analogy of which the last part is
missing. The child tells the examiner the missing part. This
Spoken Analogies (SA)
assesses verbal reasoning, listening comprehension, oral
expression, and semantics.
The examiner says a word that is actually an attribute of some
other noun to which the child responds with the noun. This
Spoken Vocabulary (SV)
assesses listening or speech comprehension, spoken
vocabulary, and semantics.
The examiner says an oral prompt with the last part missing.
Morphological Closure (MC) The child completes the phrase by saying the missing part.
This assesses morphology and listening skills.
The examiner says a sentence that is syntactically correct but
semantically nonsensical (e.g. Red flowers are smart.) The
Syntactic Sentences (SS)
child repeats the sentence. This assesses auditory sequential
memory for spoken words, oral expression, and syntax.
The examiner asks the child to delete words, syllables, and
phonemes from spoken words. This assesses phonology and
Sound Deletion (SD)
phonemic awareness.
The examiner says strings of rhyming words that increase in
length and the child repeats them. This assesses phonology
Rhyming Sequences (RS)
and phonemic sequential memory.
ITPA-3 (language measure)
Written Language Subtests
The child reads a series of sentences silently and then orders them
into a sequence to form a plausible paragraph. This assesses
reading comprehension and semantics.
After reading an adjective the child responds by writing a noun
Written Vocabulary (WV) that is closely associated with the adjective. This assesses reading
comprehension, written vocabulary, and semantics.
The child pronounces a list of printed words that contain irregular
parts. This assesses pronunciation of irregular words and
Sight Decoding (SID)
phonemes.
Sentence Sequencing
(SSq)
Sound Decoding (SoD)
Sight Spelling (SIS)
Sound Spelling (SoS)
The child reads aloud phonically regular names of make-believe
creatures. This assesses pronunciation of regular words.
The examiner reads aloud a list of irregular words. The child is
given a printed list of these words in which the irregular part is
missing. The child writes in the omitted part of the words.
The examiner reads aloud phonically regular nonsense words and
the child writes the word or the missing part. This assesses
written spelling of regular forms and phonetic spelling.
References
Council for Exceptional Children. (2002). Understanding the Differences Between IDEA and
Section 504, Teaching Exceptional Children, v.34(3). http://www.ldonline.org/article/6086/
Geary, D.C. (2003). Learning disabilities in arithmetic: Problem-solving differences and cognitive
deficits. In H.L. Swanson, K.R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp.
199-212). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Hale, J.B. & Fiorello, C.A. (2004). School neuropsychology: A practitioner’s handbook. New York,
NY: The Guilford Press.
Louisiana Department of Education, Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education.
(2009).Bulletin 1508 - pupil appraisal handbook. Retrieved from website:
http://bese.louisiana.gov/documents-resources/policies-bulletins
McCue, R. (2010, August). Foundations. PSY 1501 Assessment I: Intelligence Testing. Lectures
conducted at Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL.
References
NCLD Editorial Team. (2014). What is FAPE, and what can it mean to my child?. Retrieved from
http://www.ncld.org/parents-child-disabilities/ld-rights/what-is-fape-what-can-it-mean-mychild
Nemeth, D.G., Wimberly, T.E., Lewis, A.M., Ray, K.P., Lamar, C.J., & Gilliland, V. (2008, October).
Interventions for working memory problems in attentional disorders. Symposium presented
at the 5th World Congress of Psychotherapy, Beijing, China.
Richardson, J.T.E., Engle, R.W., Hasher, L., Logie, R.H., Stoltzfus, E.R., & Zacks, R.T. (1996). Working
memory and human cognition. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stewart, K. (2002). Helping a child with Nonverbal Learning Disorder or Asperger’s Syndrome.
Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, Inc.
Teams Intervening Early to Reach All Students. (2013, December). Common errors in special
education eligibility evaluations. , New Orleans, LA.
U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights. (2010). Guidelines for educators and
administrators for implementing section 504 of the rehabilitation act of 1973—subpart d.
Retrieved from website: http://doe.sd.gov/oess/documents/sped_section504_Guidelines.pdf