Transcript Chapter 11 Linguistics and Language Teaching

Chapter 11
Linguistics and
Language Teaching
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
Applied linguistics
Theoretical views of language explicitly or
implicitly inform the approaches and methods
adopted in language teaching.
 Linguistics, as the science of language, should be
of fundamental importance for teachers of
language.
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According to Jo McDonough, a teacher who is
able to explain some linguistic features would
have a stronger position than one who handles
the argument by using authority – “it’s like
that”, “it’s an exception”, or “it’s less formal”.
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1. Linguistics and language learning
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Many language learning
theories are proposed based
on certain linguistic
theories.
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In fact, knowledge in
linguistics lies at the root of
understanding what
language learners can learn,
how they actually learn and
what they learn ultimately.
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As Rod Ellis points out, “whereas
much of the earlier work focused
on the linguistic and, in particular,
the grammatical-properties of
learner language and was
psycholinguistic in orientation,
later work has also attended to the
pragmatic aspects of learner
language and, increasingly, has
adopted a sociolinguistic
perspective.
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Although certain language learners (e.g.,
advanced learners and students majoring a
foreign language) certainly benefit from a
knowledge of linguistics, it is not sensible to
recommend the majority of language learners
to study linguistics while they are still
struggling with the task of learning the
language itself.
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1.1 Grammar
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Do we teach
grammar?
How do we teach
grammar?
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As a compromise between the “purely formfocused approaches” and the “purely meaningfocused” approaches, a recent movement called
focus on form seems to take a more balanced
view on the role of grammar in language learning.
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Focus on Form
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Although language learning should generally
be meaning-focused and communicationoriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to
focus on form occasionally.
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Focus on form often
consists of an occasional
shift of attention to
linguistic code
features—by the teacher
and/or one or more
students—triggered by
perceived problems with
comprehension or
production.
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Universal Grammar
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Two variables concerning the amenability of
language elements to focus on form are the
relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and
the complexity of language structures.
According to the advocates of focus on form,
if an L2 structure is part of UG, the
amenability is high; otherwise, the
amenability is low.
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The problem is that no one
knows for sure what
exactly is part of UG. It is
here that the study of
linguistics comes into play.
The study of UG, which is
often considered as the
theory for the sake of
theory, is now needed in
language learning research
in the most practical sense.
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The study of UG has attracted considerable
attention from many second language
acquisition researchers because knowledge of
linguistic universals may help to shape L2
acquisition in a number of ways.
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For example, it can provide explanations for
developmental sequences and language transfer.
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Structural complexity
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It can be assumed that less complex
structures have higher amenability, but
complexity is hard to define.
Formally simple structures can be functionally
complex and formally complex items are not
necessarily functionally complex.
Again we resort to linguistics in order to have
a better understanding of the complexity of
language structures.
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Grammar-based teaching
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Grammar-translation method
Audiolingual method
Situational language teaching
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1.2 Input
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Language learning can take place when the
learner has enough access to input in the
target language.
This input may come in written or spoken
form.
In the case of spoken input, it may occur in
the context of interaction or in the context
of non-reciprocal discourse .
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Views diverge greatly as to what kind
of input should be provided for
language learners.
Authentic input
 Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1
 Premodified input
 Interactively modified input: tends to do
a better job
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Input-based teaching
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Direct method
Natural approach
Total physical response
Communicative approach
Community language learning
(CLL)
Suggestopedia
Silent way
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Suggestopedia:
Learn While You Sleep!
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The Bulgarian physician Georgi
Lozanov devised a language
learning method called
Suggestopedia.
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Caleb Gattegno’s Silent Way
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This is a chart containing a certain number
of different coloured rectangles; each colour
corresponds to a sound in the language.
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The Fidel is a set
of charts
presenting all the
possible spellings
of each sound of
the language.
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One of the 12
word charts on
which the
functional words
of the language
are printed in
color.
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http://www.saudicaves.com/silentway/rods/eng-rods.htm
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1.3 Interlanguage—output
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The type of language constructed by second
or foreign language learners who are still in
the process of learning a language is often
referred to as interlanguage.
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It is often understood as a language system
between the target language and the learner’s
native language.
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Interlanguage is a dynamic language system,
which is constantly moving from the
departure level to the native-like level.
Can be done in two ways:
investigating the psychological, biological or
neurological mechanisms involved in the
production of interlanguage;
 investigating the linguistic features of
interlanguage.
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Concerning the linguistic features of
interlanguage, the following questions can be
asked:
Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general
different from the target language or the native
language?
 In what way is lower level interlanguage different
from higher level interlanguage?
 How is the interlanguage system used to convey
meaning?
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Constructivism
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Language (or any knowledge) is socially
constructed.
Learners learn language by cooperating,
negotiating and performing all kinds of
tasks.
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In other words, they construct language in
certain social and cultural contexts.
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2. Linguistics and Language Teaching
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Linguistics theories influence
our general orientation in
approaches to language
teaching.
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Linguistic knowledge helps
teachers to better explain the
specific language items they
teach.
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2.1 Discourse-based view
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Linguistic patterns exist across stretches of
text.
These patterns of language extend beyond the
words, clauses and sentences, which have been
the traditional concern of much language
teaching.
 Focuses on complete spoken and written texts
and on the social and cultural contexts in which
such language operates.
 Accordingly, it aims at developing discourse
competence, similar to the well-known concept
of communicative competence.
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Communicative competence
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Dell Hymes
What a learners knows about how a
language is used in particular situations
for effective and appropriate
communication.
 Includes knowledge of the grammar and
vocabulary, knowledge of rules of
speaking, knowledge of how to use and
respond to different types of speech acts
and social conventions, and knowledge of
how to use language appropriately.
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It is believed that language learning will
successfully take place when language
learners know how and when to use the
language in various settings and when they
have successfully cognized various forms of
competence such as grammatical competence
(lexis, morphology, syntax and phonology)
and pragmatic competence (e.g., speech acts).
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In the case of foreign/second language
learning, language learners are encouraged to
deal with accomplishing actions, which are
thought to help them acquire the target
language.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and
Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) are the
best known examples of such a theory.
 In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students are
expected to learn by performing tasks.
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Task-based
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Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks
and pedagogical tasks.
A real-world task is very close to something we
do in daily life or work.
 Pedagogical tasks are those activities that
students do in the classroom but that may not
take place in real life. (information gap)
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Drawbacks
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Overemphasizes the role of external factors in
the process of language acquisition and gives
little importance to internal learning
processes.
Similar to the behavioristic view of language
acquisition in that environmental factors and
input are at the very center in attempting to
explicate the acquisition process.
Overstresses the role of knowledge of
competence and functions in acquiring a
language, and hence fails to notice universal
principles that guide language acquisition.
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2.2 Universal Grammar (UG)
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Noam Chomsky
A native speaker possesses a kind of
linguistic competence.
 The child is born with knowledge of
some linguistic universals.
 While acquiring his mother tongue, he
compares his innate language system
with that of his native language and
modifies his grammar.
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Input is poor and deficient in two ways.
It is “degenerate” because it is damaged by
performance features such as slips, hesitations or
false starts. Accordingly, the input is not an
adequate base for language learning.
 It is devoid of grammar corrections. It does not
normally contain “negative evidence”, the
knowledge from which the learner could exercise
what is “not” possible in a given language.
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Although UG was not originally proposed to
account for second language acquisition,
many researchers are working on its
implication for language learning and
teaching.
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Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to
account for second language
acquisition based on Chomsky’s
linguistic theory.
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Drawbacks
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UG’s primary aim is to account for how
language works, not acquisition.
UG is only concerned with the core grammar
of language (syntax).
The communication function is discarded in
UG.
Chomsky is concerned only with ‘competence’,
there can be little likelihood of SLA
researchers carrying out empirical research.
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3. Syllabus Design
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A bridge between language
teaching theory and language
teaching practice.
Translates theoretical understanding
of language teaching and sets up an
operable framework for language
teaching.
 The most important part of syllabus
design is selecting and sequencing
language items.
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3.1 Types of syllabus
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Structural
Situational
Functional/notional
Communicative
Task-based
Content-based
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3.2 Components of a syllabus
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Aims/goals
Objectives/targets/requirements
Non-language outcomes: affect cultivation
(confidence, motivation, interest, etc.)
Learning strategies, thinking skills,
interpersonal skills, etc.
Implementation: approaches, methods,
principles, suggestions, textbooks, etc.
Assessment/evaluation
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3.3 Current trends
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Co-existence of the old and
the new
Emphasis on the learning
process
 Inclusion of non-linguistic
objectives
 Emergence of the multisyllabus
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4. Contrastive Analysis
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A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine
potential errors for the purpose of isolating
what needs to be learned and what not.
Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy to
learn and what will be difficult.
 Associated in its early days with behaviorism
and structuralism.
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4.1 Main assumptions
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Language is a habit and LL involves
establishment of a new set of habits.
L1 interferes with L2.
 Errors in L2 can be accounted for by differences
between L1 and L2.
 Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so similarities can
be ignored.
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Therefore,
Need for careful analysis of similarities and
differences between L1 and L2.
 Teachers should focus on areas of negative
transfer.
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4.2 Drawbacks
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Overemphasis on linguistic contrasts but
lack of psychological considerations.
Cannot predict all errors while some
predicted errors do not occur.
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5. Error Analysis
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S. Pit Corder
Many errors made by L2 learners were
caused by factors other than L1 interference.
Errors are not just to be seen as something
to be eradicated.
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5.1 Error and mistake
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Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/
competence
Mistake: learner’s failure to perform their
competence
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5.2 Interlingual vs. intralingual
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Interlingual errors
(transfer errors): misuse of
an item because of L1
influence.
Intralingual errors
(developmental errors):
within L2 (e.g.
overgeneralization)
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5.3 Procedure of error analysis
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Recognition
Description
Explanation
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5.4 Problems
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Rely on errors to study how L2 is learned –
inadequate.
Difficult to determine what an error is:
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There are so many people live around here.
Over-stresses production error but fails to
account for error avoidance: learner avoids a
certain word or structure.
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6. Corpus
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Language corpora make it
possible for materials
developers to select authentic,
natural and typical language.
The two most important factors
in a corpus are the size and
types of texts selected.
 Usually the uses that will be
made of the corpus decide the
number and type of texts in a
corpus.
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6.1 Types
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General
Specialized
Sample
Monitor
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6.2 Uses
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Frequency
Context and cotext
Grammatical
Collocation and
phraseology
Pragmatics
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