Writing at the Graduate Level

S A R A C U L V E R W R I T I N G S P E C I A L I S T W A L D E N U N I V E R S I T Y W R I T I N G C E N T E R

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GENDA • Review key attributes of graduate-level writing (5 min.) • Review elements of scholarly voice and argument (25 min.) • Examine specific strategies for writing (20min.) • Explore sample student writing (10 min.) • Questions (5 min.)

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HAT IS GRADUATE

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LEVEL WRITING

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Exploring the key characteristics and expectations of graduate school writing

Master-Level vs. Doctoral-Level

M ASTER -L EVEL S TUDY

• The outcome of master's degree study is mastery of content and skills. • Master's study artifacts demonstrate understanding and application. Products tend to be declarative and procedural (e.g., write a lesson plan).

D OCTORAL -L EVEL

• The outcome of doctoral study is multifaceted, with the end result of making a

S TUDY

contribution to the field. • Doctoral study artifacts address the impact of products in a larger arena (e.g., write three different styles of lesson plans; relate and-critique to research-and critique—look at the bigger picture; and examine/evaluate the impact on student achievement and retention).

Master-Level vs. Doctoral-Level

M ASTER -L EVEL S TUDY D OCTORAL -L EVEL S TUDY

• Students may study a selection of theories, choosing one to demonstrate understanding. • Students question, challenge, and test the work of others, then produce their own original work, creating a unique theory.

• Doctoral students educate themselves, critique their work against established theories, then design their own theory to present to others.

• Students help others relate their own practice to a theory.

T HREE C OMPONENTS

Writing at the graduate level, whether master’s or doctoral, can be easily identified by the presence of scholarly voice, scholarly argument, and critical analysis that often (but not necessarily, depending on program expectations) leads to a unique contribution to the writer’s field.

• Scholarly Voice • Scholarly Argument • Critical Analysis and a (Potential) Unique Contribution to Field

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CHOLARLY VOICE How is it created?

S MOOTHNESS AND E CONOMY OF E XPRESSION

According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA; 2010, p. 65), "Devices that are often found in creative writing for example: setting up ambiguity, inserting the unexpected, omitting the expected, and suddenly shifting the topic, tense, or person - can confuse or disturb readers of scientific prose." Likewise, "the author who is frugal with words not only writes a more readable manuscript but also increases the chances that the manuscript will be accepted for publication...You can tighten long papers by eliminating redundancy, wordiness, jargon, evasiveness, overuse of the passive voice, circumlocution, and clumsy prose" (APA, 2010, p. 67).

• Avoid metaphors, slang, clichés, jargon, contractions, “tired language” • Avoid wordiness by omitting all unnecessary words • Use clear, precise language • Sometimes simple sentences are best!

F ORMAL , P RECISE W ORD C HOICE

Per Walden-wide policy, first person (I, me, mine) is preferable to third person (this researcher, this scholar) in academic writing.

Passive: The survey was administered to the sample population.

Active: I administered the survey to the sample population.

Imprecise: The big, yellow dog ran quickly down the street.

Precise: The Labrador sprinted down the street.

• Avoid personal pronouns (you, we, I),unless describing steps taken for research • Use active verbs • Avoid adverbs, sweeping adjectives—use precise verbs and nouns instead

W A L D E N U N I V E R S I T Y W R I T I N G C E N T E R , 2 0 1 1

N EUTRAL T ONE

“Scientific writing must be free of implied or irrelevant evaluation of the group or groups being studied….Constructions that might imply bias against persons on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic group, disability, or age are unacceptable. Long standing cultural practice can exert a powerful influence over even the most conscientious author. Just as you have learned to check what you write for spelling, grammar, and wordiness, practice rereading your work for bias” (APA, 2010, p. 71).

• Use a professional tone • Strive to be noncombative • Be objective • Do not assume your reader shares your views (no matter how uncontroversial you find them) • Do not assume your reader shares your background

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CHOLARLY

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RGUMENT

What does it mean?

T HESIS OR P URPOSE S TATEMENT

Graduate writing should always include a rigorous, well considered thesis or purpose statement. This statement, often appearing at the end of a paper’s introduction, acts as a road map for your reader to the rest of your text.

Good thesis statements are: • Specific • Concise • Arguable

U SING E VIDENCE

Scholarly writing is characterized by the use of evidence (see examples to the right) to support assertions. Evidence improves the credibility of your argument and analysis by demonstrating your critical engagement with knowledge in your field.

• Books, journal articles, and other publications • First-hand research results • Personal communication

C ITING S OURCES

“Scientific knowledge represents the accomplishments of many researchers over time. A critical part of the writing process is helping readers place your contribution in context by citing the researchers who influenced you…cite the work of those individuals [who]…provide key background information, support or dispute your thesis, or offer critical definitions and data” (APA, 2010, p. 169).

• Every claim that is not a common knowledge (i.e. The earth is round) or your own original analysis (i.e. Gardner’s theory is flawed because…) must be accompanied by a citation • APA citation format uses author year information • Citations should appear both in text and in a reference list at the end of your paper

Analyze, Don’t Summarize

S UMMARY

In Huck Finn, Twain spends many pages describing the appearance of the Mississippi River, including words like “swift,” “powerful,” and “implacable.” The river is an important part of the book (1884, p. 137-189).

A NALYSIS

The Mississippi River functions as much more than just setting in Twain’s Huck Finn. Described as “powerful” and “implacable,” Twain lends the river a human personality and shapes the body of water into a full-blooded character, an artistic decision that opened up, in turn, the possibilities for naturalism in American fiction (1884, p. 137-189).

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PECIFIC

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TRATEGIES

Okay, so how do I do it?

Choose Source Texts Carefully

S TRONG C HOICES

• Articles from peer reviewed journals (print or online) • Peer-reviewed or academic books • Scholarly websites

W EAK C HOICES

• Wikis • Newspapers • Magazines • Encyclopedias • Dictionaries • Popular books • General websites

It Helps to Research the Right Way!

U SE THE L IBRARY

• Find appropriate, rigorous scholarly publications • Use bibliographies of these publications to expand your search • Seek out primary sources.

A VOID THE I NTERNET

• Do not rely exclusively on Google • Do not rely on sources with no clear author, publication date, or official affiliation

Limit Direct Quotation

• Paraphrase (restating an author’s ideas in your own words) demonstrates a higher level of engagement with the source material than directly quoting it.

• Rely on paraphrase to demonstrate that you have understood what you have read and can restate in your own words.

P APER -L EVEL O RGANIZATION

Organization is an important component of your writing. Strong paper level organization allows your ideas to build on themselves until you reach your conclusion. Handled well, organization can play a large role in persuading your reader of the validity of your conclusion or results. The Writing Center recommends creating an outline for each assignment before you begin to write.

• • • • • Sample order of paragraphs: • • Overall purpose: The purpose of this paper is to show that cultural and religious values can be a difficult but not impossible barrier to public health professionals concerned about the welfare of a closed community.

Main thesis: Because of their religious beliefs and distrust of public health workers, the Smurfs are at risk for communicable disease outbreaks.

• Background: Write about the problems the Smurfs have experienced, perhaps by showing a couple of examples of outbreaks.

Major topic: Public health challenges Subtopic 1: Smurf religious attitudes and values.

Subtopic 2: Smurf attitudes toward "the outside world.“ Subtopic 3: Smurf attitudes toward vaccination.

Major topic: Efforts by outsiders to break into closed communities.

P ARAGRAPH L EVEL O RGANIZATION

Organization within a paragraph is also important, in order to guide your reader through the progression of your ideas. The Writing Center recommends you use the MEAL acronym: Main idea (topic sentence) Evidence (quotations and paraphrase) Analysis (your explanation) Lead-Out (preparing for next idea) Public health managers generally have little training in the area of public health finance and program monitoring (Honore & Amy, 2005).

evaluation.

Researchers in the U.S. have found that many public financing curricula do not address the needs of the public health sector managers (Gillespie, Kurz, McBride, & Schmitz, 2004). In an international survey, AbouZahr and Boerma (2005) found that health information systems, particularly at the local level, have yet to incorporate mechanisms to link expenditures and performance to facilitate program monitoring and Numerous other challenges relating to documenting accountability and performance exist. At a macro-level they include the lack of: easily understood evaluation models, experience with continuous quality improvement methods, and mechanisms to provide feedback to stakeholders, including staff, or customers (Green & Newman, 1999; Newcomer, 1997; Schalock & Bonham, 2003).

Main Idea Evidence Analysis

Revise, Revise, Revise

• Writing is a process, not an event. Plan on writing multiple drafts of your first assignments.

• Use the following checklist for revision:  thesis statement  paper and paragraph organization  use of evidence  citation format  tone  wordiness  mechanics (grammar, spelling)

E

XAMPLES

What does successful graduate-level writing look like?

S PECIFICITY , E VIDENCE , C LARITY

Note the following: 1) The student begins specifically, rather than generally (i.e. with an overview of cancer).

2) The student defines key terms quickly and clearly.

3) The student relies on a robust list of sources in giving the definitions, and he or she also uses correct APA citation format.

“Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM), the most common form of mesothelioma, is caused by asbestos exposure in up to 80% of cases (Cugell & Kamp, 2004; Ismail-Khan et al., 2006; Robinson & Lake, 2005). It is a rare cancer of the pleura and is associated with a long latency period (i.e., 20 to 40 years), late diagnosis, poor prognosis, and an expected median survival of 4 to 12 months postdiagnosis without treatment (Ceresoli, Gridelli, & Santoro, 2007; Ismail-Khan et al., 2006; Neragi Miandoab, 2006; Steele, 2002).”

S ENTENCE S TRUCTURE , T ONE

Note the following: 1) The sentence structure here is relatively simple. Though the ideas are complex and technical in nature, they are still fairly easy to follow. Student uses technical terms appropriately, not gratuitously.

2) The tone is appropriately formal. The approach is scholarly. The writer keeps his or her emotions and opinions out of the writing.

“Although other studies with similar objectives, clinical endpoints, and methodologies have been conducted for first-line treatment of MPM (e.g., Baas et al., 2000; Baas et al., 2003; Berghmans et al., 2005; Byrne et al., 1999; Castagneto et al., 2008; Ceresoli et al., 2006; Favaretto et al., 2003; Janne et al., 2008), the overall consensus of the trials described in this section is that second line SOC therapy for MPM needs to be established. In addition to those patients who failed first-line therapy, some of the patients who achieve benefit from first line therapy show performance status that indicates being eligible to receive further treatment.”

U SE OF E VIDENCE

Note the following: 1) The student relies almost exclusively on paraphrase, not direct quotation.

2) The evidence is incorporated wholly into the organization of the paragraph. Evidence does not stand apart from the author’s topic; it is inseparable from the main points of the paragraph.

“To address this gap, continuous time survival was applied in latent variable models to jointly estimate the association of PRO and survival endpoints. Applying joint modeling methods accounts for data censoring (Diggle, Henderson, & Philipson, 2009, p. 353), and all available data can be used to construct the growth curve trajectory of the PRO endpoints (Singer & Willett, 2003; Stull, 2008). In addition, the longitudinal modeling of PRO data allows estimation of the overall differences due to time, as well as the progression of individual differences ‘nested’ within those time points (Singer & Willett, 2003).”

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UESTIONS

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