Transcript Document

English Lexicology (II)
“Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary
nothing can be conveyed.”
Contents
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5. Word-Formation I: the Major Processes
6. Word-Formation II: the Minor Processes
7. Motivation
To be continued
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Chapter 5 Word-Formation I:
The Major Processes
5.1 General Remarks
5.2 Prefixation
5.3 Suffixation
5.4 Conversion
5.5 Compounding
5.1 General Remarks
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The three major processes
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affixation or derivation (17.5%)
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Prefixation
suffixation
conversion (10.5%)
composition or compounding (27%)
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5.2 Prefixation
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The definition of prefixation
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Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding
prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the
word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.
However, there is an insignificant number of classchanging prefixes
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Non-class-changing prefixes: natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fairunfair
Class-changing prefixes: force-enforce, danger-endanger, formdeform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollege
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5.2 Prefixation
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The classification of prefixes
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In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes)
are classified according to their source, but this
does not seem to help from a practical point of
view. It seems more helpful to classify the most
important productive prefixes by their meaning
into the following ten categories:
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5.2 Prefixation
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1) Negative prefixes
a-/an- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy,
disdishonest, discontent, discover, disobey, disagree
inIncomplete, inconsistent, incorrect, invulnerable,
illogical, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance,
irrational, irregular
non- nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic,
nonadjustable, nonalcoholic
ununinformative, unexpected, unease, unrest
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5.2 Prefixation
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Order
Literate
Symmetry
Governmental
Relevant
Productive
Believable
Vulnerable
Sane
Related
Aligned
Mature
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Disorder
Illiterate
Asymmetry
Nongovernmental
Irrelevant
Unproductive
Unbelievable
Invulnerable
Insane
Unrelated
Nonaligned
Immature
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5.2 Prefixation
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2) Reversative or privative
deun-
defrost, deregulation, degeneration, deformed,
denationalize
undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask
dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested
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5.2 Prefixation
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Centralize
Plane
Infect
Zip
Regulate
Possess
Pollute
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Decentralize
Deplane
Disinfect
Unzip
Deregulate
Dispossess
Depollute
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5.2 Prefixation
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3) Pejorative prefixes
mismal-
misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice,
misgiving
maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction,
maldevelopment
pseudo- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic,
pseudo-friend
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5.2 Prefixation
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4) Prefixes of degree or size
hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious
ultra-
ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative
mini-
minibus, minicamera, miniskirt
out-
outdo, outgrown, outlive
over-
overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden
under- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate
super- supermarket, superpower, superstar
sub-
subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom
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5.2 Prefixation
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Computer
Critical
Conscious
Natural
Sensitive
Simple
Number
Statement
culture
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Minicomputer
Ultracritic /hypercritic
Subconscious
Supernatural
Hypersensitive/ultrasensitive
Oversimple
Outnumber
Understatement
Subculture
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5.2 Prefixation
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5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude
co-
Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation
counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive,
counterattack, counterculture, countermeasure
antipro-
anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial,
anticancer, antibody
pro-American, pro-revolutionary, pro-Fascism , prostudent, proslavery
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5.2 Prefixation
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6) Locative prefixes
fore-
forearm, foreleg, forename, foreword
inter- international, intergovernmental, intertwine,
interdisciplinary, intercollege
trans- transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant
tele-
telephone, telegram, telecommunication
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5.2 Prefixation
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View
Conference
Continental
Ground
Cast
Specific
Racial
Shore
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Interview
teleconference
Intercontinental
Foreground
Telecast
Transpacific
Transracial
Foreshore
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5.2 Prefixation
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7) Prefixes of time and order
ex-
ex-husband, ex-president, ex-colony, ex-convict
fore- foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarn
pre-
premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premarital
post- post-election, postwar, postgraduate, postdoctoral
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5.2 Prefixation
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8) Number prefixes
uni-/mono-
unilateral, unicell, unicircuit, unicolor, unicycle,
unidimensional, uniform, unipolar, monoxide, monocrystal,
monogamy, monologue
bi-/di-
bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly, dioxide, dialogue, dichotomy,
disyllable
tri-
triangular, triatomic, trimonthly, trilateral, trilingual
multi-/poly-
multipurpose, multipolar, multiangular, multilingual,
polyatomic, polycrystal, polygamy
semi-
semicircle, semiliterate, semivowel, semiannual,
semicolony, semiautomatic
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5.2 Prefixation
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Lingual
Lateral
Polar
Dimensional
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Unilingual, bilingual,
trilingual, multilingual
Unilateral, bilateral,
trilateral, multilateral
Unipolar, bipolar, tripolar,
multipolar
Unidimensional,
bidimensional,
tridimensional (threedimensional),
multidimensional
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5.2 Prefixation
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9) Conversion prefixes
a-
aloud, asleep, aglow, awash
be-
belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitch
en-
endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower
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5.2 Prefixation
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10) Miscellaneous prefixes
Extra- Extralinguistic, extraordinary, extraterrestrial
Neo-
Neo-classicism,neo-colonialism, neo-fascism,
Neolithic
Pan-
Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism
……
………..
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5.3 Suffixation
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The definition of suffixation
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Suffixation is the formation of new words by
adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which
primarily change the meaning of the stem,
suffixes have only a small semantic role, their
primary function being to change the
grammatical function of stems. In other words,
they mainly change the word class. However,
they may also add attached meaning to the stem.
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5.3 Suffixation
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The classification of suffixes
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Since suffixes mainly change the word class, we
shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into
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1) noun suffixes
2) adjective suffixes
3) adverb suffixes
4) verb suffixes
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5.3 Suffixation
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1) Noun suffixes
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Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the
following five kinds.
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Denominal nouns (concrete or abstract)
Deverbal nouns
De-adjectival nouns
Noun and adjective suffixes
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5.3 Suffixation
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1) Noun suffixes
Denominal nouns (concrete)
-eer auctioneer, engineer, mountaineer, pamphleteer,
profiteer, racketeer
-er Londoner, teenager, villager
-ess actress, waitress, stewardess, hostess, lioness
-let
booklet, leaflet, piglet, starlet
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5.3 Suffixation
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1) Noun suffixes
Denominal nouns (abstract)
-age
baggage, luggage, mileage, percentage
-dom
freedom, kingdom, stardom, officialdom
-ery/-ry drudgery, slavery, nunnery, nursery, machinery
-ism
idealism, optimism, individualism, consumerism
-ship
dictatorship, scholarship, friendship, sportsmanship
-ocrasy aristocracy, democracy, meritocracy
-hood
boyhood, brotherhood, neighborhood, adulthood
-ful
handful, mouthful, plateful, tubful
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5.3 Suffixation
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1) Noun suffixes
Deverbal nouns
-ant
contestant, inhabitant, assistant, informant
-ee
interviewee, addressee, appointee, nominee, employee
-er/-or
driver, employer, interviewer, computer, silencer, accelerator,
supervisor, actor, window-shopper
-ation
foundation, exploration, nomination, starvation
-ing
building, dwelling, earnings, savings, clothing, stuffing
-al
refusal, revival, survival, arrival, dismissal
-ment
amazement, arrangement, movement, government
-age
breakage, coverage, shrinkage, drainage
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5.3 Suffixation
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1) Noun suffixes
De-adjectival nouns
-ity
-ness
diversity, equality, rapidity, verbosity, responsibility,
actuality, regularity, popularity, respectability
accurateness, falseness, kindness, selfishness,
happiness, largeness, frankness, unexpectedness,
thickness, goodness
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5.3 Suffixation
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1) Noun suffixes
Nouns and adjective suffixes
-ese
Burmese, Chinese, Cantonese, officialese, journalese
-(i)an Darwinian, republican, Elizabethan, Shakespearean,
Indonesian, Russian
-ist
communist, pianist, specialist, socialist
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5.3 Suffixation
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2) Adjective Suffixes
Denominal suffixes
-ed
dogged, rugged, pointed, chocolate-flavored
-ful
-ish
delightful, successful, faithful, meaningful
childish, foolish, snobbish, Irish, Turkish
-less
homeless, hopeless, merciless, harmless
-like
childlike, ladylike, statesmanlike
-ly
friendly, cowardly, motherly, daily, weekly
-y
milky, sandy, hairy, meaty
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5.3 Suffixation
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2) Adjective Suffixes
Denominal suffixes
-ic (-atic)
ethnic, economic, historic, problematic
-ous (-ious,
-eous)
ambitious, desirous, marvelous, courageous,
erroneous, courteous
-al (-ial, -ical) accidental, professional, residential, musical,
philosophical
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5.3 Suffixation
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2) Adjective Suffixes
Deverbal suffixes
-able (-ible,
-uble)
-ive (-ative,
-sive)
debatable, drinkable, changeable, perishable,
permissible, visible, dissoluble, soluble
attractive, reflective, productive, negative,
decorative, talkative, affirmative, expansive,
explosive, decisive
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5.3 Suffixation
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3) Adverb Suffixes
-ly
smoothly, personally, extremely, publicly, naturally
-ward(s) downward, eastward, homeward, forward
-wise
clockwise, lengthwise, weatherwise, educationwise,
taxwise, moneywise
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5.3 Suffixation
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4) Verb suffixes
-ate
Originate, hyphenate
-en
Deepen, harden, strengthen, hasten
-ify
Solidify, modify, beautify, classify, identify
-ize(-ise) Symbolize, computerize, legalize, publicize,
specialize
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5.3 Suffixation
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False
Sterile
Intense
Fat
Horror
Memory
Apology
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Falsify
Sterilize
Intensify
Fatten
Horrify
Memorize
Apologize
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5.4 Conversion
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The definition of conversion
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Conversion is a word-formation whereby a word
of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of
another without the addition of an affix. It is also
called zero derivation(零位派生).
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5.4 Conversion
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Major types of conversion
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Noun-verb conversion
Verb-noun conversion
Adjective-noun conversion
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5.4 Conversion
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Noun-verb conversion
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He elbowed his way through the crowd.
Problems snowballed by the hour.
The newspaper headlined his long record of
accomplishments.
Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to
Camp David.
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5.4 Conversion
Changes of pronunciation and spelling
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Abuse
Advice
House
Use
Belief
Grief
Shelf
mouth
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Abuse
Advise
House
Use
Believe
Grieve
Shelve
Mouth
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5.4 Conversion
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Verb-noun conversion
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He was admitted to the university after a threeyear wait.
This little restaurant is quite a find.
It is a good buy.
He took a close look at the machine.
doubt, smell, desire, want, attempt, hit, reply,
divide
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5.4 Conversion
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Verb-noun conversion
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Phrasal verb-noun conversion
Right branching
Left branching
Break down
Breakdown
Break out
Outbreak
Pick up
Pick-up
Spill over
Overspill
Take over
Take-over
Start up
Upstart
Get together
Get-together
Put in
Input
Keep up
upkeep
Break through Breakthrough
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5.4 Conversion
Shift of stress
 Conflict
 Abstract
 Contrast
 Decrease
 Discount
 Export
 Rebel
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Permit
Progress
Protest
Transfer
Transplant
Survey
Torment
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5.4 Conversion
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Adjective-noun conversion
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Partial conversion
Complete conversion
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5.4 Conversion
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Adjective-noun conversion
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Partial conversion
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Denoting a quality or a state common to a group of person: the
deaf, the blind, the poor, the wounded
Denoting peoples of a nation (ending in –sh, -se, -ch): the
English, the Chinese, the Danish, the Scotch
Denoting a quality in the abstract: a strong dislike for the
sentimental, to distinguish the false and the true, from the
sublime to the ridiculous
Denoting a single person (converted from participles): the
accused, the deceased, the deserted, the condemned
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5.4 Conversion
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Adjective-noun conversion
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Complete conversion
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A native, two natives, a returned native
He is a natural for the job.
Tom is one of our regulars, he comes in for a drink
about this time every night.
To them she is not a brusque crazy, but appropriately
passionate.
They are the creatives in the advertising department.
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5.5 Compounding
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The definition of compounding
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Composition or compounding is a wordformation process consisting of joining two or
more bases to form a new unit, a compound
word. It is a common device which has been
productive at every period of the English
language. Today the largest number of new
words are formed by compounding.
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5.5 Compounding
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Forms of compounds
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Solid: bedtime, honeymoon
Hyphenated: above-mentioned, town-planning
Open: reading material, hot line
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5.5 Compounding
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Types of compounds
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Noun compounds
Adjective compounds
Verb compounds
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5.5 Compounding
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Noun compounds
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Headache, housekeeping, hot line, swimming
pool, raindrop, breakdown, biological clock,
identity crisis
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5.5 Compounding
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Adjective compounds
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Weather-beaten rocks, peaceloving people,
everlasting friendship, a difficult-to-operate
machine, a made-up story, an on the spot
inspection, taxfree products, fire-proof dress
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5.5 Compounding
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Verb compounds
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Formed by back-formation
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house-keep from housekeeper
windowshop from window-shopping
mass produce from mass production
hen-peck from hen-pecked
spoon-feed from spoon-fed.
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5.5 Compounding
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Verb compounds
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Formed by conversion
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to blue-print, to cold-shoulder, to outline, to
honeymoon, to snowball, to chain-smoke, to sweettalk, to job-hop.
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Chapter 6 Word-Formation II:
The Minor Processes
6.1 Blending
6.2 Backformation
6.3 Shortening
6.4 Analogy
6.1 Blending
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The definition of blending
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Blending（ 拼 缀 法 ） is a process of wordformation in which a new word is formed by
combining parts of two words. The result of such
a process is called a blend or telescopic word or
portmanteau word. Blending is thus a process of
both compounding and abbreviation. Structurally
blends may be divided into four types (see page
45-46).
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6.1 Blending
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Examples
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newscast (news＋broadcast)
brunch (breakfast＋lunch)
smog (smoke＋fog)
talkathon (talk＋marathon)
slimnastics (slim＋gymnastics)
videophone ( video ＋telephone)
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6.1 Blending
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sci-fi
hi-fi
workaholic
stagflation
Unicom
sitcom
motel
dawk
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science＋fiction
high＋fidelity
work＋alcoholic
stagnation＋inflation
United ＋ Communications
situation＋comedy
motor＋hotel
dove＋hawk
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6.2 Backformation
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The definition of backformation
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Back-formation（逆成法） is a process of
word-formation by which a word is created by
the deletion of a supposed suffix. It is also
known as a reverse derivation.
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6.2 Backformation
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Examples
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edit from editor
automate from automation
enthuse from enthusiasm
gloom from gloomy
donate from donation
brainwash from brainwashing
sleep-walk from sleep-walking
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6.3 Shortening
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Types of shortening or abbreviation
（缩略法）
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1) clipped words（剪切词）: those created by
clipping part of the word (usually a noun),
leaving only a piece of the old word. The clipped
form is normally regarded as informal.
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6.3 Shortening
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Types of shortening or abbreviation
（缩略法）
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2) initialisms（首字母连写词）: a type of
shortening, using the first letters of words to
form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase;
an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.
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6.3 Shortening
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Types of shortening or abbreviation
（缩略法）
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3) acronyms（首字母拼音词）: words formed
from the initial letters of words and pronounced
as words. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that
they are pronounced as words rather than as
sequences of letters.
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6.3 Shortening
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1) Clipped words
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ad=advertisement
expo=exposition
phone=telephone
pro=professional
memo=memorandum
tec=detective
heli or copter=helicopter
comfy=comfortable
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6.3 Shortening
Give clippings for the following words
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gymnasium
dormitory
handkerchief
gasoline
kilogram
influenza
business
parachute
refrigerator
taxicab
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gym
dorm
hanky
Gas
kilo
flu
biz
chute
fridge
taxi or cab
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6.3 Shortening
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2) Initialisms
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IOC=International Olympic Committee
BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation
ISBN=International Standard Book Number
CAD=computer assisted design
cm=centimeter
TB=tuberculosis
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6.3 Shortening
Write out in full the following initialisms
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CPU
DIY
CEO
IT
AI
SOS
IDD
GMT
VIP
P.S.
a.m.
p.m.
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central processing unit
Do it yourself
Chief Executive Officer
Information technology
artificial intelligence
Save our ship
international direct dial
Greenwich Mean Time
very important person
postscript
ante meridiem
post meridiem
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6.3 Shortening
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3) Acronyms
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Basic=Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction
TEFL=teaching English as a foreign language
UNESCO=the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
Sars=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
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6.3 Shortening
Write out in full the following acronyms
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Tofel
ROM
NATO
FIFA
Aids
radar
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Test of English as a foreign language
read only memory
The North Atlantic Treaty organization
Federation Internationale de Football
Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome
Radio detecting and ranging
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6.4 Analogy

The definition of analogy（类比）

The process by which words or phrases are
created or re-formed according to the existing
patterns in the language
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6.4 Analogy

Examples
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


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Marathon-----telethon, talkathon
blue-collar workers-----white-collar workers, gray-collar
workers, pink-collar workers, gold-collar workers
environmental pollution-----visual or eye pollution, noise
pollution, cultural pollution, graffiti pollution
First Family-----First Lady, First Dog
Landscape-----moonscape, marscape
Bird’s eye------fish-eye, worm’s-eye, cat’s-eye
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Chapter 7 Motivation
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
7.3 Morphological motivation
7.4 Semantic motivation
7.5 Logical motivation
7.6 Motivation and Culture
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
• Triangle of significance（词义三角）
Meaning (Concept)
Word
Form…………. Referent
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7.1 Conventionality and Motivation

The debate over the connection
between sound and meaning


The naturalists maintain there is a
natural/intrinsic connection between sound and
meaning.
The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold
that the relations between sound and meaning
are conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a
word is a kind of linguistic social contract.
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7.1 Conventionality and Motivation

Conventionality（约定俗成）


What’s in a name? That we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet.
-----Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet
Words have no meaning, people have meaning
for them.
------ Eric Partridge
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7.1 Conventionality and Motivation

Conventionality




树---Chinese
木---Japanese
arbre---French
baun---Germany
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7.1 Conventionality and Motivation

Motivation（理据）

Motivation deals with the connection between
name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It
is the relationship between the word structure
and its meaning.
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7.1 Conventionality and Motivation

Non-motivated and motivated


From the point of view of motivation, the great
majority of English words are nonmotivated,
since they are conventional, arbitrary symbols.
However, there is a small group of words that
can be described as motivated, that is, a direct or
somewhat connection between the symbol and
its sense can be readily observed.
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7.1 Conventionality and Motivation

Examples of motivation





The pigeon coos.
airmail, miniskirt, hopeless
a coat of paint
He has a stony heart.
The question was like the Sphinx’s riddle to them.
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7.1 Conventionality and Motivation

Types of motivation





Onomatopoeic motivation
Morphological motivation
Semantic motivation
Logical motivation
Motivation and Culture
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7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation

Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据） means
defining the principle of motivation by sound.
Words motivated phonetically are called
onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation
suggests the meaning. They show a close
connection between sound and sense.
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7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation

Primary onomatopoeia

Primary onomatopoeia means the imitation of
sound by sound. Here the sound is truly an
“echo to the sense”.
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7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation

Primary onomatopoeia
cats
mew, purr
lions
roar
eagles
scream
mice
squeak
frogs
croak
Snakes
hiss
hens
cluck
wolves
howl
(For more examples, see page 60-61)
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7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation

Secondary onomatopoeia

Secondary onomatopoeia means that certain
sounds and sound-sequences are associated
with certain senses. In other words, certain
sounds evoke symbolic connotations,
suggesting particular senses.
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7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation

Secondary onomatopoeia

-are suggests “big light or noise”


-ump suggests “protuberance”


Plump, chump, rump, hump, stump, dump, mump
sk- suggests “touching or moving on the surface’


Blare, flare, glare, stare
Skate, skim, skin, ski, sketch, skid
h- suggests “moving with great speed, force, or violence”

Heavy, haste, hurry, hit, hurl, hammer, hinder
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7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation

But it has to be pointed out that onomatopoeic
words constitute only a small part of the
vocabulary; some onomatopoeic words are not
completely motivated phonetically and are
conventional to quite a large extent. If you throw
a stone into water, the sound you hear is by no
means the same as when you say splash. Flies
do not exactly make the sound of buzz.
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7.3 Morphological motivation

We say the word is morphologically motivated,
for a direct connection can be observed between
the morphemic structure of the word and its
meaning. This is called morphological
motivation(形态理据）
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7.3 Morphological motivation



Derivational words are morphologically motivated. If one
knows the meaning of the affix and the base, then one
can immediately tell the meaning of the word.
Compounds words may be morphologically motivated
too. The meanings of words like good-looking, spaceman,
moonscape, daydream and many others derive from the
combined meaning of the component parts.
One thing worth pointing out is that the morphemes, the
component parts of these words are themselves
conventional.
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Semantic motivation （语义理据）refers to the
mental association suggested by the conceptual
meaning of a word. It explains the connection
between the literal sense and figurative sense of
the word. Here it is the figurative usage that
provides the semantic motivation.
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Examples:


When we speak of a stony heart we are
comparing the heart with a stone.
when we say the leg of a table, we are comparing
the table’s leg with one of the lower limbs of a
human being.
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Types of semantic motivation




Metaphor
Metonymy
Synecdoche
Analogy
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Metaphor

Metaphor（ 隐 喻 ） is a figure of speech
containing an implied comparison, in which a
word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of
one thing is applied to another. It is a simile
without like or as.
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Metaphor




The world is a stage.
A sea of troubles; a tide of popular applause.
The city is a jungle where no body is safe after
the dark.
Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed,
and some few to be chewed and digested.

----- Bacon Of Studies
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Metonymy

Metonymy（借代） is the device in which we
name something by one of its attributes. The
substitution of the name of one thing for that of
another with which it is closely associated.
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Metonymy

Metonymy usually includes several classes:
container for its content, a thing closely
associated for another, tool for the doer or deed,
writer for his works, the concrete for the abstract
and so on.
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Metonymy






He is too fond of bottles.
The hall applauded.
I have never read Li Bai.
The pen is mightier than the sword.
He succeeded to the crown.
Uncle Sam; the Pentagon; Hollywood; the White
House;Beijing
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Synecdoche

Synecdoche（提喻）means using a part for a
whole, an individual for a class, a material for a
thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part.
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Synecdoche





There are about 500 hands working in this
factory.
This newspaper—and probably the country—will
wait its time and see how the new faces perform
before judging them.
The birds sing to welcome the smiling year.
To earn one’s bread
He is a clever creature .
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Analogy

Analogy（类比）is a process whereby words or
phrases are created in imitation of existing
patterns in the language. The motivation is that
the meaning or sense of the created word shares
similarity with the existing language pattern.
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Analogy



Color: black list---white list, gray list; blue-color workers--white-collar workers, gray-collar workers, pink-collar
workers, and gold-collar workers
Number: the First World---the Second World, the Third
world, the Fourth World
Place and space: landscape---moonscape, marscape;
sunrise---earthrise; spaceman---earthman, moonman
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7.4 Semantic motivation

Analogy


Similarity: missile gap---generation gap,
development gap, income gap, credibility gap
Antonym: hot line---cold line; baby boom---baby
bust; nightmare---daymare; cold-war---hot war;
high-rise---low-rise
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7.5 Logical motivation

Logical motivation（逻辑理据）deals with the
problem of defining a concept by means of logic.
It means, first, identify the concept of a genus
（种概念）, second, to identify the attributes
distinguishing one species（属差）from other
similar species in the same genus.
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7.5 Logical motivation

Compounds combining species and genus


Crisis---economical crisis, financial crisis,
spiritual crisis, ecological crisis, credit crisis,
military crisis, identity crisis
Relations---international relations, business
relations, diplomatic relations, bilateral relations
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7.5 Logical motivation

Clipped compounds by shortening species or genus

drug from narcotic or hallucinogenic drug




He is addicted to drugs
pill from birth control pill
The Hill from the Capitol Hill
Nobel from Nobel Prize
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7.6 Motivation and Culture

Relation

Motivation is closely related to culture and
history. In English, some words are endowed
with rich cultural connotations. Words that
epitomize cultural history are call culturallybound words or allusive words. These words
originated from religion, mythology, history and
literature.
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7.6 Motivation and Culture





forbidden fruit: sth. alluring but prohibited
because of terrible consequences
Odyssey: a long, adventurous journey
the last straw: the last thing that leads one to a
final loss of patience, temper, trust, or hope
Waterloo: a final, crushing defeat,eg. meet one's
Waterloo
Uncle Tom: a person who compromises and
conforms
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7.6 Motivation and Culture



Prometheus unbound:an overwhelming power
Solomon: a wise man
Sphinx: A puzzling or mysterious person or thing.
Eg. a Sphinx’s riddle: a puzzling, mysterious
question, problem.
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7.6 Motivation and Culture



Judas: One who betrays another under the guise of
friendship. Judas kiss: a malicious intention under
the guise of intimacy and friendship
pound of flesh: legal but unreasonable demand or
claim
white elephant: A rare, expensive possession that is
a financial burden to maintain, no longer wanted
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7.6 Motivation and Culture





The naked truth was fully revealed through a
newspaper.
-----He told us about his adventures last night. It’s a
pity you were not there.
-----Arabian Nights only. Don’t believe him.
Like an Apollo, he comes and arrests everyone’s
attention in the hall.
No cross, no crown
To quest for full citizenship is really an Odyssey for
Afro-Americans.
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7.6 Motivation and Culture

A non-native learner should have
relevant background knowledge
about the target language’s history,
geography, customs, habits,
knowledge about the Bible and
Christianity.
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7.6 Motivation and Culture

National psychology


To take French leave
Double Dutch; Dutch bargain; Dutch courage;
Dutch comfort; Dutch treat; to go Dutch; to talk
Dutch; I’m a Dutchman if ….
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7.6 Motivation and Culture

Religious Philosophy



As poor as a church-mouse
As patient as Job
As wise as Solomon
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7.6 Motivation and Culture

力大如牛







守口如瓶
如雨后春笋
如热锅上的蚂蚁
覆水难收
胆小如鼠




as strong as a horse
as dump as an oyster;as
silent as the grave; as close
as wax
spring up like a mushroom
like a cat on hot bricks
It’s no use crying over spilt
milk.
As timid as a rabbit
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