Transcript Chapter 8 Personality Assessment

Chapter 8
Personality Assessment
Objective Tests
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Objective test involve the
administration of a standard set of
questions or statements to which the
examinee responds using a fixed set of
potions.
Many objectives test use a true false
or yes/no response format others
provide a dimensional scale (e.g.
o=strong disagree; 1= disagree; 2=
neutral; 3= agree; 4= strongly agree).
Advantages of Objective
Test
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Objective tests of personality or self-report have had a central role
in the development of clinical psychology.
First of all, their economical. After only brief instructions, large
groups can be tested simultaneously, or a single patient can
completed inventory alone. Even computer scoring an
interpretation of these tests are possible.
Second, scoring and administration are relatively simple and
objective. This in turn tends to make the interpretation easier and
seems to require less interpret to skill of the part of the clinician.
A final attraction to self-report inventories, particularly for
clinicians who are disenchanted with the problems inherent in
projective tests, is their appearance objectivity and reliability.
Disadvantages of Objective
Tests
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For clinicians who tend to pay little attention to mediating variables such as motives
or cognitions, this is a virtue rather than aid defect.
Inventories often provide a single overall score, which may reflect various
combinations of these behaviors, cognitions, and needs. Therefore, to individuals
were achieved the same score may actually be quite different, even in reference to
the personality traits or construction in question. Thus, the same score on a measure
may have several alternative interpretations.
Other difficulties involved a transparent meeting of some inventories questions, which
can obviously facilitate faking on the part of some patients. Some tests tend to
develop heavily on the patience self-knowledge.
In addition, the forced choice approach prevents individuals from qualifying or
elaborating their responses to that some additional information may be lost or
distorted the limited understanding or even the limited reading ability of some
individuals may lead them to misinterpret question or to answer questions and a
random fashion.
Methods of Test Construction for
Objective Tests
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Content validation. The most straightforward
approach to measure it is for clinicians to
decide what it is they wish to assess and then
simply ask the patient for that information.
Ensuring content validity -content validation
methods involve (a) carefully defining all
relevant aspects of the variable you are
attempting to measure; (b) consulting experts
before generating items;(c) using judges to
assess each potential items relevance to the
variable of interest; and (d) using
psychometric analysis to evaluate each item
before you can include it in your measure.
Methods of Test Construction
for Objective Tests
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Potential problems are inherent in the content validity
approached to test construction.
– First, it can clinicians assume that every patient interpreted a
given item in exactly the same way?
– Second, when patients accurately report their own behavior or
emotions?
– Third, will patients be honest, or will they attempt to place
themselves in a good light?
– Fourth, can clinicians assume that the experts can be counted on
to define the essence of the concept they are trying to measure?
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Empirical Criterion Keying
Objective Tests
The most prominent example of this general math that is the original Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory. In this approach, new assumptions made as to
whether a patient is telling the truth or the response really corresponds to behavior
or feelings. What is important is that certain patients describe themselves in certain
ways.
The import and assumption inherent in this approach is that members of a particular
diagnostic group will tend to respond in the same way. Consequently, it is not
necessary to select test items in a rational, theoretical fashion. All of that is required
is to show on an empirical basis that the members of a given diagnostic group
respond to a given item in a similar fashion.
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The utility of the item is thus determined solely by the extent to which discriminates
among known groups.
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Of course, the criterion keying method has its problems. Foremost is the difficulty of
interpreting the meaning of a score.
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Although demonstrating that the tests can discriminate among various patient groups
is one aspect of establishing the validity of a task, the sole use of the empirical
criterion keying method to select items for a test is not recommended.
Factor Analysis Work
Objective Test
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The idea is to examine the intercorrelations among the individual items
from many existing personality inventories. Succeeding factory analyses
will then reduce or purify scales thought to reflect basic dimensions of
personality. The exploratory factor analytic approach is atheoretical. One
begins by capturing a universe of items and then proceeds to reduce them
to basic elements-personality, adjustment, diagnostic affiliation, or
whatever-in attempt to arrive at the core traits and dimensions of
personality.
Confirmation factor analytic approaches are more theory driven, seeking to
confirm a hypothesize factor structure for the test items.
This trend of the factory analytic approach to test construction is the
emphasis on an empirical demonstration that items purporting book to
measure a variable or dimension of personality are highly related to one
another.
A limitation to this approach is that it does not in and of itself demonstrate
that these items are actually measuring durable of interest; we only know
that the items tend to be measuring the same thing.
Construct Validity Approach
Objective Test
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This approach combines many aspects of the content
validity. Empirical criterion keying, and factor that
analytic approaches. In this approach, skills are
developed to measure specific concepts from a given
theory. The selection of items is based on the extent to
which they reflect the theoretical construct under study.
Item analysis, factor analysis, and other procedures for
used to ensure that a homogeneous skill is developed.
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Because of its comprehensiveness, construct validity
approached to test construction is both the most
desirable at the most labor intensive. In fact,
establishing the construct validity of the test is a never
ending but process, with empirical feedback used to
refine both the theory and the personality measure.
The MMPI and MMPI-2
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The MMPI back was long the best
example of empirical keying
approach to test construction.
Published by Hathway and McKinley
in 1943, it is still considered the
preeminent self-reported inventory.
The MMPI, which has been used for
virtually every predictive purposing
imaginable, ranging from the
likelihood of episodes of psychosis to
marriage suitability.
Description: MMPI
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The basic purpose was to identify the psychiatric diagnoses of
individual.
The following psychiatric categories were used: hypochondriasis,
depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviation, paranoia,
psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and hypomania. Two additional skills,
masculinity-femininity and a social introversion it were added later.
These skills names reflected a diagnostic classification system that
was used in 1940's and 1950's but is now antiquated.
The original MMPI was composed of 550 items to which the patient
answered true, false or cannot say. Only those items that
differentiated a given clinical group from a nonclinical group were
included.
Although the test was originally designed for people aged 16 and
older, the MMPI has been used with individuals considerably
younger. The test was Machines Corp. or hand scored. Indeed, it
was possible to completely administer, score, and interpret the
MMPI by computer.
Description: MMPI-2
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With our original MMPI standardization sample had been criticized for many
years as unrepresentative of the general U.S. population.
For restandardization, all 550 items were retained, but 82 were rewritten.
The original meaning of the items were preserved, but the language was
made more contemporary. In addition, 154 new items were added to the
top item pool, bringing the total to 704 items. But after adjustments, the
final version of theMMPI-2 now includes 567 of the larger pool of 704 items.
However, only the first 370 items in the test booklet are administered when
only the traditional validity and clinical scales are of interest.
Participants for the restandardization sample came from Minnesota, Ohio,
North Carolina, Washington, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and California, and the
samples were based on U.S. census data from 1980.
The authors of the MMPI-2 state that it can be used but individuals were in
least 13 years old and or can read at eighth grade level. It can be
administered individually or in groups. It has only one booklet form. It can
be computer scored, and non-English-language versions of the test are
available. It also has an adolescent version (MMPI- A).
MMPI: Validity Scales
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A potential problem itself reported inventories, including the MMPI-2, is their susceptibility to
distortion through various test-taking attitudes or responds sets. For example, some respondents
may wish to place themselves at a favorable light; other may fake bad to increase the likelier to
receive aid. Obviously, if the condition is not aware of these responses out in a given patient, the
test interpretation can be a gross error.
To help detect malingering-faking bad- other response sets or tests-taking attitudes, and
carelessness or misunderstanding, the MMPI-2 continues to incorporate the traditional for validity
scales that were included in the original MMPI.
1.? Scale. This is the number of items left unanswered.
2. F scale. The 60 items were seldom answered in the scored direction by the standardization
group. A high F score may suggest deviant behavior, or other hypothesis about extra tests
characteristics or behaviors.
3. L (lie) scale. This includes 15 items who's endorsed places the respondent of very positive
light.
4. K (Defensiveness) Scale. PS 30 items suggest defensiveness and admitting certain problems.
These items reportedly detect faking good.
5. Fb (Back-page Infrequency) Scale. These 40 items are scoring in the end of the test are
infrequently endorsed.
6. VRIN (Variable Response Inconsistency) Scale. This consisted of 67 pairs of items with either
similar opposite content. High BRIN scores suggest random responding.
7. TRIN (True Response Inconsistency) scale. This consists of 23 item pairs that are opposite in
content. High TRIN White scores suggest a tendency to give true responses indiscriminately; low
TRIN scores suggest a tendency to give false responses indiscriminately.
These seven MMPI-2 validity scales provide a means for understanding the test respondence
motivation and test-taking attitudes.
MMPI: Short Forms
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These scales where typically shorten the MMPI to considerably less than the
traditional 550 items. Some lost of interpretative power can also be expected.
More generally, one short form of any psychological tests should, but perhaps, rarely
be developed and, if so, should be subjected to quite stringent standards of reliability
of validity as a stand-alone measure.
Interpretation patterns: profile analysis.
Because the original scales were developed to predict psychiatric categorization, the
initial use of the MMPI depended on simple interpretations based on elevated scale
scores.
However, the medical experts quickly taught that some compartmentalize
interpretations or oversimplification. Some nonclinical respondents achieve White
high SC scores, and so do other diagnostic groups.
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Interpretation has now shifted to an examination of patterns, or profiles, of scores.
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Interpretation through content.
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Thus, a major change of improvement in the clinical use of the MMPI and MMPI-2
have been a shift away from differential psychiatric diagnosis based on the elevation
of a single score to a more sophisticated profile analysis of scale scores considered as
measures of personality traits.
Supplementary Scales
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There are 450 supplementary scales
for the MMPI. For the MMPI-2, there
are 12 supplementary scales
A Summary Evaluation of the
MMPI and MMPI-2
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SCREENING. Many clinicians are attracted to theMMPI-2
because of its screening capabilities. When information about
the severity of a patient's problem is needed, and when the
condition was general hypothesis about a patient's diagnostic
status, the MMPI-2 can be a valuable asset.
THE QUESTION OF PERSONALITY DYNAMICS.
The MMP I -2 is atheoretical. The MMPI- 2 is primarily a
measure of various symptoms of psychopathology. Although
the features tapped by the MMPI-2 items may suggest certain
personality traits or styles, it was not developed with
personality constructs in mind.
MMPI: Reliability and Validity
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When the MMPI is used in the manner for which it was designed and
validated, it psychometrics properties are likely to be adequate for
the clinical research purposes. There are two issues related to the
validity of MMPI-2 scores: incremental validity is supported if scaled
scores provide information about a person's behavior, personality
features, where psychopathology features that is not provided by
other measures.
As for the validity of cutoff scores, it is important to keep in mind
that the optimal cutoff scores will vary depending on the nature of
the population of the patients sampled.
MMPI-2 cutoffs were derived using the distribution of scores from the
normative sample. Therefore, these cutoffs may or may not be
appropriate in certain clinical context.
MMPI: Personnel Selection and
Bias
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Lack of trust in our social institutions
and the concern of minorities have
been reflected in criticisms of the
tests. Given the nature of the original
sample that MMPI was validated on,
questions have been raised as to
whether the instrument may be biased
against certain ethnic and racial
groups.
The Revised NEO-Personality
Inventory
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The revised NEO- Personality Inventory is a self- reported
measure personality features that comprise the influential
model of personality known as the five-factor model.
But five factors or domains are neuroticism, extraversion,
openness to experience, agreeableness, and
conscientiousness. Each domain as six facets or subscalespersonality traits that represent various aspects of each
domain.
The NEO-P I-R consists of 240 items. Individuals read each
of the 240 statements on a five-point scale (strongly
disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree)
NEO-Personality Inventory
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The Neo-PI-R was developed using a rationalempirical test construction strategy that
emphasized construct validity. Items selection was
based on empirical performance; that is the most
reliable and valid items were retained.
Factor analysis or performed to ensure that the
item loaded on their respective factors.
Approximately half of the NEO-P I-R items are
reverse scored; that is, lower scores of more
indicative of the trait in question.
The more controversial aspects of the NEO-PI-R
lack of the validity scale to evaluate the
respondence test-taking approaches.
NEO-Personality Inventory
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NORMS. Adult norms of based on 500 men 500 women on from
several samples of community residents. The normative sample
closely approximates U. S. Census Bureau projections for 1995 in
the distribution of fact age and racial groups. The NEO-PI-R manual
represents normative data for college students as well.
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RELIABILITY AND STABILITY. NEO-P I-R scores show excellent
levels of both internal consistency and test-retest reliability.
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Factor structure. Factor analysis have, in general, the support the
hypothesize five-factor structure of the NEO-P I E-R.
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VALIDITY. The NEO-P I-R manual presents a variety of evidence
attesting to the validity of the instrument scores.
NEO-Personality Inventory
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CLINICAL APPLICATIONS.
Axis II personality disorders involve by definition, maladapted
personality traits, these disorders represent and of this application
for usage of the Neo-PI-R. Further, investigators have begun to
evaluate the utility to of the neo-P I-Re in assessing personality
characteristics of individuals with Axis I mood, anxiety and substance
used as orders. Taken together, these studies suggest that the neo-P
I-R and related instruments hold some promise in the area clinical
assessment.
ALTERNATE FORMS.
A 68-item short form of the neo-P I-R, known as the neo-five factor
inventory may be used when a relatively short measure of the five
major personality dimensions are desired. Another version of the
neo-P I-R is used for observer ratings.
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LIMITATIONS OF THE NEO-P
I-R
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First the NEO-P I-R has been criticized for its relative lack of validity
items.
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Second, the use of the NEO-PI-R for clinical diagnostic purposes
remain to be demonstrated.
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Third, but too little research is being conducted on the use of the
NEO-P I-R in treatment planning to warrant the routine use of this
measure in clinical settings at this time.
Finally, several psychometric criticisms have been leveled NEO-P I-R,
including intercorrelation among certain domain scores and the
placement of certain facets with book in particular domains
PROJECTIVE TESTS
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Projective tests can be traced to Hermann
Rorschach's classic 1921 monograph, in
which he described the use of inkblots as
a method for the differential diagnosis of
psychopathology.
In 1935, Morgan and Murray introduced
the Thematic Apperception Test and 1938;
Murray carefully described the process of
projection. The term projective really
came into popular use following L. K.
Frank's widely discussed a 1939 paper on
projective methods.
The Nature of Projective Tests
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Projective techniques, taken as a whole,
but tend to have the following
distinguishing characteristics:
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In response to what a structure on ambiguous
stimulus, examinees of force to impose own
structure and, in so doing, reveals something
of themselves.
The stimulus material is unstructured.
The method is indirect.
There is freedom of response.
Response interpretation deals with more
variables.
Projective Test Measurement and
Standardization
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The project is, by their very nature, seemed to resist
psychometric evaluation.
Standardization. There are so many interacting variables that
standardization interpreter approaches would surely destroy the
holistic nature of projective tests. After all, they say,
interpretation is that art.
Reliability. Test-retest reliability may be affected by psychological
changes in the individual. It is true that clinicians can opt for
establishing reliability through the use of alternative forms. Even
split-half is difficult to ascertain because of the difficulty of
demonstrate the equivalents of the two halves of each test.
Validity. Because projective have been used for such a
multiplicity of purposes, there is little point in asking general
questions.
The Rorschach
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The Rorschach consists of 10 cards on which a printed inkblots that are
symmetrical from the right to left. Five of the ten cards are black and
white and the other five are colored.
ADMINISTRATION. The clinician hands the patient the first card and
says, " Tell me what you see-what might be for you. There are no right or
wrong answers. Just tell me what it looks like to you.” All the subsequent
cards are administered in order the clinician takes down verbatim
everything the patients says. Some clinicians also record the length of
time it takes the patient to make the first response to each part as well as
the total time spent on each card.
The clinician also notes which the position of the card as each responses
given. All spontaneous remarks or exclamations are also recorded.
Following this phase, the clinician moves to whether what is called the
inquiry. The patient is reminded of all previous responses, one by one,
and ask why what it was that prompted each response. The patient is also
asked indicate for each card the exact location of the various responses.
The Rorschach
Scoring Techniques
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Location refers to the area of the card to which the patient
responds.
Content refers to the nature of the objects seen.
Determinants refer to those aspects of the card that prompted the
patience response.
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Exner's comprehensive system of scoring is most frequently used.
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RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY. The Rorschach responses can be
scored reliably across raters.
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RORSCHACH INKBLOT "METHOD“ Weiner argued that he
Rorschach is best conceptualized as a method of data collection, not
a test.
The Thematic Apperception Test
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The Thematic Apperception Test was introduced by Morgan
and Murray in 1935. It purports to reveal patience basic
personality characteristics through the interpretation of
their imaginative productions in response to a series of
pictures.
Most clinician issues that T A T as a method of informing
psychological needs at of disclosing how the patient
interacts with the environment. The TAT is used in for the
content of personality and the mold of social interactions.
With the T A T, clinicians are likely to make specific
judgments. The TAT is less likely to be used to assess the
degree of maladjustments than to reveal the locus of
problem, the nature and needs or the quality of
interpersonal relationships.
TAT Description
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Their 31 TAT cards most of the people in a variety of situations, but
a few contain only objects. And one is a blank card. Some are said
to be useful for boys and men, some for girls and women, and some
for both genders. Murray suggested that 20 of the 31 cards be
selected for a given examinee.
ADMINISTRATION. In practice, clinicians typically select
somewhere between six and 12 cards for administration to be a
given patient.
Exact instructions used vary from clinician to clinician it goes
something like this: Now, I want you to make up a story about each
of these pictures. Tell me who the people are, what are they doing,
what they are thinking or feeling, what led up to the scene, and how
it will turn out. OK?
TAT Reliability and Validity
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Is very difficult to evaluate the reliability and
validity of the T A T in any formal sense.
There are so many variations in instructions,
methods of administration, number of cards
used, and the type of scoring system if any,
that hard conclusions are virtually
impossible.
The same methodological issues arise when
studying reliability.
Sentence Completion
Techniques
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Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank - the
complete sentence blank consists of 40 sentence
stems. Each of the completions can be sorted all
law a seven. Scale to provide a general index of
adjustment-maladjustment.
ADVANTAGES. The scoring is objective and
reliable. It can be used easily and economically,
and it appears to be a good screening device.
The ISB provide a cognitive and behavior picture
of the patient rather than a deep, psychodynamic
picture.
Incremental Utility
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Incremental validity refers to the degree of which
a procedure and adds to the prediction obtainable
from other sources. For an assessment
procedure to be of real value, it must tell
clinicians something of importance that they
cannot get from merely inspecting the base rates
for the population of interest.
Finally, it should be noted that a given
assessment instrument must demonstrate
incremental validity over other more economical
measures to justify its use.
Illusory Correlation
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The interpretation of projective tests
responses depend heavily on the
psychodiagnostician's experience.
Illusory correlation based on
associative strength can introduce a
powerful source of error.
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The Use and Abuse of Testing
Testing is big business. Psychological, educational, and Personnel Corporations sell many
thousands of tests each year.
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Protections. The American psychological Association's ethical standards require that
psychologists use only techniques or procedures that lie within their competence.
In addition, the purchase of Testing Materials is generally restricted by the publisher to
individuals or institutions that can demonstrate their competence in administering, scoring,
and interpreting tests.
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The question of privacy. The examinee must be given only test relevant to the purpose of
the evaluation.
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The question of confidentiality. Information revealed to psychiatrist and clinical
psychologist is typically regarded as a privilege, there are continuing assaults on the right to
withhold such information. For example, the Tarasoff decision of the plant California Supreme
Court makes it clear that information provided by a patient in the course of therapy cannot
remain privileged if that information indicates that the patient may be dangerous.
The question of discrimination. Within psychology, attacks have centered on ways in
which test discriminate against minorities. It is often charge that most psychological tests are
really designed for white middle-class population and that other groups are being tested with
the devices that are inappropriate for them.
Test bias. It is important to remember that significant differences between man scores on a
test different groups do not in and of themselves indicate test bias or discrimination. Rather,
test bias or discrimination is a validity issue. That is, if it can be demonstrated that the
validity of a tests varies significantly across groups, then a case can be made that the test is
biased for that purpose
Computer-based Assessment.
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Computers have been used for years to support tests and to generate psychological
profiles. Now they are also used to a minister in interpret responses to clinical
interviews, IQ tests, a self reported inventories, and even projective tests. The
reason given for using computers include cutting costs, enhancing its clients'
attention and motivation, and standardizing procedures across clinicians. The
increasing use of Internet-mediated psychological assessment raises a number of
issues. First relatively few studies have demonstrated that Internet-based vs.
traditional psychological test possess the same psychometric qualities. Second, online
assessment may also be subjects to confounding factors like a lack of control over
the testing situation, distractions, or technical problems. All these may serve to make
the on line test scores less valid.
Computer -based test interpretations have the advantages of generating
interpretive findings quickly, of minimizing subjectively in selecting interpretations of
scores, and of accessing a large databases and processing potentially complex scores
patterns, there are numbers of limitations as well.
Limitations:First many CBTI systems have not been adequately scrutinized from a
scientific standpoint, and thus, in accurately interpretations result.
Second, the impression of scientific precision may lead clinicians to indiscriminately
use CBTI material when it is not relevant or not appropriate. Therefore, CBTIs must
be shown to be reliable, valid, and clinically useful.
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Ultimately, the have of any clinical
assessment instrument will depend on
whether the information provided by
the test is useful for planning,
conducting, in evaluating treatment.