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Overview of
Course
• Course Expectations
• Context of Professional Development in
Schools
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General characteristics of education
Characteristics of schools
Classroom conditions
Realities of Teaching
Teacher motivation
• Getting Acquainted
1
Overview of Staff
Development
Professional
Development
Individual
Development
Clinical
Supervision
Organizational
Development
Problematic
Assistance
Self Directed
Development
Building
Development
District
Development
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General
Characteristics
of Education
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Quality of teaching pool
Unstaged career
Part time commitment
Routine and unalterable work environment
Lack of professional contact with other
Bureaucratic nature of organizations
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School Work Place
Conditions
• Goal clarity--as sense of common purpose
– progress is possible
– movement toward goal is expected
– prediction of own activities and how they fit in to
larger plan
• Consistent and standard procedures for
routine problems
• Collective feedback to the staff about the
educational program's results
• Non-fragmentation of staff
• Involvement of staff in decisions that effect
instruction
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Classroom
Conditions
• Knowledge base is weak
– Although we know a great deal about the teaching
learning process, proven methods across all
situations are scarce
– Unlike medicine and the sciences, the knowledge
base is poorly developed
– Many professions deny the existence of any
knowledge and disdain what is known
– What we do know is more theoretical--a problem for
rigid, concrete thinkers
• Goals are vague and conflicting
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minimal of higher level?
social or academic?
control or emancipating?
maintenance or emergent?
• Professional support is lacking
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lonely profession
almost no professional interaction
learning is almost all by experimentation
learning is non-cummulative
• Teaching is an art and craft not a science
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Realities of
Teaching
• Style is high personalized
– Most styles are built on trial and error
– Two types of repertory--teaching content and working
with individual children
• Rewards are derived from students
– May lead to programs that seek rewards from others
– Low SES students or special populations of students
provide fewer rewards to teachers
• The rewards a teacher receives are known
to be subjective by the teacher
• Teaching and Learning links are uncertain
– Many different strategies can achieve the same
results--there are no given proven methods that can
be applied in all cases
– Good teaching means knowing how to adjust to
context and having the skill to offer different
approaches
• Routines of Teaching
– Rhythms-repetition, predictability, dullness
– Rules-limit creativity, result in moor rules, substitute
for thinking
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Individual Teacher
Motivation
• Knowledge of Success
– Teachers must rely on self-observations
– Isolation denies opportunity for feedback
• Sense of personal responsibility
– Control over work life
– Hunter seven step lesson design
– Prescribed curriculum
• Staff must see meaning in work
– Efficacy
– Meaningful work divisions
• Staff must feel challenged by work and feel
that they can make significant improvement
through their own industry
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Introduction to
Adult Development
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Age related life cycles
Developmental stages
Professional life cycle of teachers
Implications for staff development
Application examples
Age Related Adult
Transitions
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Phase 1-- Forming a Life Structure
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Phase 2-- Age 30 Crisis
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Teens to early 20's
Provisional adulthood and initial commitments
Exploring new options
Making initial commitments to job and career
Establishment of initial love relationships
Decisions about children, house, etc..
Late 20's to early 30's
Examining initial decisions
Reaffirmation of initial commitments
Asking what life is all about
May result in re-stabilization or change
Return to school, divorce, remarriage, job change
Phase 3-- Settling Down
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30's to 40's
Career is often major focus
Children enter school
Mothers returns to work or school
Long tern goals established
Promotions are important marker of success
Adult seeks to break away from mentors for
independence
• Phase 4-- Midlife Transition
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40's to 50's
Major questioning about priorities and values
Realization that time is finite
Realization that success and achievement have
limitations
– Additional investment in personal relationships
• Phase 5-- Re-stabilization
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60's and up
Satisfaction with life
Vigorous sense of flourishing
Setting life in order
• Key Concepts
– Adaptation occurs through periods of stability
– On or off time crises are important
– Attention to life-cycle issues of identity, intimacy,
reflectively are important
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Developmental
Related
Transitions
• Ego Development-- Jane Loevinger
– Major Concepts
• No stage is skipped
• A sequence of more complex stages adults move
through
• Different individuals may stabilize at different stages
– Stage 1-- Impulsive Stage
• Impulses dominate behavior
• Control is effected through external constraint and
immediate
rewards
• People are valued in terms of what they can provide
• Present predominates, with little sense of past or future
– Stage 2-- Self Protective Stage
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Impulses are controlled and rewards are anticipated
Don't get caught is the main rule
Blame is placed on others or circumstances
Manipulative and exploitative relationships are common
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Ego Development-continued
• Stage 3-- Conscientious Stage
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Internal sense of responsibility
Self-criticism is possible
Rules are internalized
Exceptions and contingencies are recognized
• Stage 4-- Autonomous Stage
– Can tolerate and cope with inner conflict
– Acknowledges other persons' needs for autonomy
and need to make mistakes
– Mutual interdependency is highly valued
– Self-fulfillment and issues of justice are added to the
concerns of individuals
– Stage 5-- Integrated Stage
• Self-actualization
• Valuing of individuality and interdependence
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Moral
Development
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Lawrence Kohlberg
Six stages grouped into three levels
– Level 1-- Pre-conventional Level (stage 1 punishment
and obedience and stage 2 instrumental purpose and
exchange)
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obedient to a superior
satisfaction of own needs
values others according to what they can do for the individual
relationships typically only one way
– Level 2-- Conventional Level (stage 3 mutual
interpersonal expectations, relationship, and
conformity, and stage 4, social systems and
conscience maintenance)
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conforming to group norms is important
want to be a nice person
two way relationships
maintaining and preserving societal order, maintaining rules,
showing respect for authority
– Level 3-- Post-conventional Level (stage 5 prior rights
and social contract and stage 6, universal ethical
principles)
• whole of society is right or ethical principles that apply to all
humans should be the standards
• universal justice, equality, and dignity are the basis of decision
making
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Staff Intellectual
Development
• A movement from concrete to abstract
thought
• Two types of intelligence-- Crystallized and
Relational
• Intellectual Development-- Perry (1970)
– Stage 1 Dualism
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meaning is divided into polarities- good and bad
right answers exist
correct answers need to be memorized
knowledge is quantitative
– Stage 2 Multiplicity
• diversity of opinion and values is recognized as
legitimate
• everyone is right
– Stage 3 Relativism
• evidence is sought for positions
• some positions may be found to be worthless while
others remain
reasonable
• context is now carefully considered
– Stage 4 Commitment
• affirmation of choice
• active reflection
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Fessler/
Christensen
Model
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Pre-service Induction
Career
Exit
Career
Cycle
Career
Wind-Down
Career
Stability
Competency
Building
Enthusiastic
& Growing
Career
Frustration
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Professional Life
Cycle of Teachers
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Michael Huberman (1989)/Fessler and
Christensen (1992)
Pre-Service
Survival and Discovery/ Induction
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can I do this
what are the best ways to survive
overcoming no experience
gulf between professional ideals and reality of
classroom life
– intimacy and distance with ones pupils is a problem
– initial enthusiasm for the profession and having own
class
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Stabilization/ Competency Building
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making a commitment
ruling out other options
affiliation to an occupational community
greater instructional mastery
looking for refinement of tools that have worked
before
Experimentation-Activism / Enthusiastic
and Growing
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attempts to increase impact
experimentation with alternative methods
attempts to change elements in the school or district
avoidance of problems faced by older peers
Professional Life-continued
• Taking Stock: Self-Doubts/ Career
Frustration
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mid-career crisis
growing sense of disenchantment
other careers are almost ruled out at this point
men face this more that women who have other
commitments in their lives
• Serenity/ Career Stability
– mechanical, relaxed, self-accepting
– loss of energy and enthusiasm but greater sense of
confidence and self-acceptance
– greater relational distance between teacher and
students
• Conservatism/ Career Wind-Down
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increasingly greater prudence
greater resistance to change
dogmatism
greater nostalgia for past
• Disengagement/ Career Exit
– increasing withdrawal and internalization
– giving way to younger ideas
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Teaching Cycle
Model
Survival and Discovery
Stabilization
Experimentation/
Activism
Reassessment
/Self-Doubts
Serenity/ Relational
distance
Conservatism
Disengagement:
Serene or
Bitter
Huberman, M. (1989) The professional life cycle of teachers. Teachers College Record, 91 1)
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Exercise One
• Select one stage of adult development and
describe a teacher you know who is in that
phase
• For someone in that phase of development,
what might be important life influences?
• What kind of school organization would be
best for this individual?
• What are their professional growth needs
• What kind of incentives would encourage
growth?
• What kind of support system might the
school system need to provide?
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Exercise Two
• For Brenda, Peter, Louise, Henry, and Willie
decide what career stage they are in at the
moment
• What are important life influences for
them?
• What are there professional growth needs?
• What elements or activities should be
present in a staff development program to
address their individual needs?
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Overview
• Separation of Formative and Summative
Evaluation
• Working with individual teachers
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Separation of Summative
and Formative
Evaluations
• Summative evaluations are based on
meeting basic expectations
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Clearly stated and known
Basic not desirable
All employees need to met all minimums all the time
Evaluation can occur at any time
Used for administrative purposes
• Formative evaluations are intended to
produce growth
– Clinical Supervision is the primary method
• Basic characteristics
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face to face relationships between teacher and supervisor
a focus on the teacher's actual behavior in the classroom
not a "remedy" applied by the supervisor
teacher centered supervision
designed to help the teacher improve his or her
instructional
performance
– phases
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Individual
Development's
Underlying Propositions
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Teachers operate at different levels of
professional development.
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differ in ability to analyze instruction
differ in knowledge level of subject area
differ in knowledge level of teaching
differ in knowledge level of children at that age
differ in ability to use a repertoire of problem-solving
strategies
– differ in ability to match strategies to particular situations
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They need to be supervised in different
ways (because of differing abilities,
motivational levels, and effectiveness)
– teachers at lower levels need more structure and direction
– teachers at higher developmental levels need less structure
and a more active role in decision-making
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The long-range goal of supervision should
be to increase every teacher's ability to
grow toward higher stages of thought.
– more reflective, self-directed teachers will be better able to
solve their own problems and meet the educational needs of
their students
– thoughtful teachers promote thoughtful students (Carl
Glickman, 1991)
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Developmental
Supervision
• Assessing your own beliefs about
supervision
• Developmental Supervision
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Overview of Goal Setting Conferences
Overview of Non-directive Conferences
Overview of Collaborative Conferences
Overview of Directive Conferences
Example of a Non-directive Conference
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What Is
• Supervision cannot rely on the existing
work environment of schools to stimulate
instructional improvement
• Supervisors cannot assume that teachers
are reflective, autonomous, and
responsible for their own development
• Supervisors will have to redefine their
responsibilities--from controllers of
teachers' instruction to involvers of
teachers in decisions about school
instruction. (Carl Glickman, 1991)
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What Can Be
• Supervision can strengthen teacher's
belief in a course beyond oneself
• Supervision can promote teachers' sense
of efficacy
• Supervision can make teachers aware of
how they complement each other in
striving for common goals
• Supervision can stimulate teachers to
appraise, reflect, and adapt their
instruction.
• Supervision can challenge teachers toward
more varied, abstract thought.
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Assumptions of
Clinical
Supervision Model
• to improve instruction, teachers must
learn specific intellectual and behavioral
skills
• supervisor should take responsibility for
helping the teacher develop
– analytical skills based on data
– adaptation, experimentation, curriculum skills
• emphasis is on the instructional process,
not teacher personality
• emphasis is on making and testing
instructional hypotheses
• conferences deal with a few instructional
issues that are important to the teacher
and amenable to change
• based on observational evidence
• continuous cycle of planning. observing,
and analysis
• centered on the analysis of instruction
• dynamic process involving give and take
• supervisor can also improve and has the
same responsibility as the teacher
Developmental
Supervision Underlying
Propositions
• Teachers operate at different levels of
professional development.
– differ in ability to analyze instruction
– to use a repertoire of problem-solving strategies
– and match strategies to particular situations
• They need to be supervised in different
ways (because of differing abilities,
motivational levels, and effectiveness)
– teachers at lower levels need more structure and
direction
– teachers at higher developmental levels need less
structure and a more active role in decision-making
• The long-range goal of supervision should
be to increase every teacher's ability to
grow toward higher stages of thought.
– more reflective, self-directed teachers will be better
able to solve their own problems and meet the
educational needs of their students
– thoughtful teachers promote thoughtful students
(Carl Glickman, 1991)
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Diagnosis of Teacher
Developmental Level
Case Studies
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Group 1 Mary, Sam, Ann
Group 2 Carl, Ann, John
Group 3 Jane, John, Fred
Group 4 Mary, Jane, Sam
Group 5 Carl, Ann, Fred
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Practice
Analyti
cal
Ability
Motivation
Content
Knowle
dge
Instruction
Knowledge
Student
Knowle
dge
Mary
Jane
Sam
Ann
John
Fred
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Basic Skills of the
Three Conference
Protocols
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Setting tone-adjusting anxiety level to facilitate
learning
Setting Purpose-describing intended outcomes,
duration, and success criteria
Initiating-beginning conference slowly
Listening-striving for complete understanding
Reflecting-verbalized understanding of initial
statements
Clarifying-probing for underlying areas of potential
growth
Encouraging-keeping the discussion going
Reflecting-understanding teacher's message and
identifying general areas of growth
Problem Solving-identification of growth areas and
steps
to be taken
Presenting-searching for understanding and
commitment
Standardizing-establishing action plan
Evaluating-conference feedback for improvement
Examples of
Conference
Protocols
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Supervisor: "Thanks for coming, lets review where we
are going today"
Supervisor to secretary: "Mary, could you hold all calls
while Jim and I try to establish some growth targets
this year."
Supervisor: " I hear you saying that ....."
Supervisor: I'm following what you are saying, please
continue"
Supervisor: "Please check my understand. I think you
are saying that ......"
Supervisor: "What would be some alternative ways we
could approach this issue?"
Supervisor: "OK, then we have agreed that the focus
this year will be decreasing desist statements in your
math classes. I'll code that behavior on a random basis
and we will sit down ......"
Supervisor: "Jim, how do you think we might work
more effectively in these goal setting conferences?"
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Goal Setting
Conferences
Format
• Conference Introduction
– Purpose: To introduce the conference and prepare the
participants to get the maximum benefit from the
chosen format
• Analysis
– Purpose: To cause the teacher to engage in a
self-analysis while the supervisor gathers
information. To make sure the supervisor has an
accurate perception of the teacher's concerns
• Goal Identification
– Purpose: To facilitate goal identification and the
underlying objectives that might be necessary to
accomplish the overall goal
• Future Planning
– Purpose: To develop a concrete plan of action that
specifies the who, what, when, how often, and
measurement standards of the improvement effort.
• Critique
– Purpose: To obtain feedback about the nature and
conduct of the conference to improve future
developmental work with the teacher.
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Directive
Conferences
• Use When
– Supervisor knows more about the content, students,
pedagogy
– When teacher motivational level is low
– When analytical skills are lacking
• Keys to look for
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Difficulty in seeing relationships
Difficulty in understanding data
Wants rules
Relies on authority
Lack of concern
Stagnant
Limited use of instructional techniques
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Collaborative
Conferences
• When to use
– When knowledge of students, instruction, and
content is roughly equal
– When motivation is good
– When analytical ability is good
• Keys
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Teacher expresses interest in working together
Give-and-take relationship is productive
Teacher is comfortable with supervisor
There is an ability to build upon mutual suggestions
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Non-Directive
Conference
• Use when
– Teacher's knowledge, motivation, and analytical
ability are high
– Supervisor knows less than teacher
– Teacher can be expected to self-improve
• Keys
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Can define strategies
Can draw relationships
Can generate novel alternatives
Can evaluate and select consequences of each
alternative
– Takes initiative to improve
– Understands the subject area in relation to the scope
and sequence
– Knows subject area beyond existing guides
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Working With
Poor Teachers
• Development of Minimal Expectations
• Review of Basic Principles
– Due Process
– Equal Treatment
– Just Cause
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Due Process a
Constitutional
Right
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notice of standards
notice of effect of violating standards
employee knowledge of facts
opportunity to defend
effective defense
grievance procedure
right to appeal
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Just Cause--Used
by Arbitrators and
Courts
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Was the employee informed of management's rules and
expectations
– written policy
– prior warning
– rule clarity
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Were management's rules and expectations reasonable
Was adverse action necessary to maintain orderly,
efficient procedures in the organization
Was the employee's infraction investigated and were
the
procedures used fair
– due process concept
– contractual agreements followed
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Has management administered its rules equitably
Was the employee given an opportunity to improve
his/her conduct
Was the imposed penalty reasonable given the
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nature of offense
past employee record
frequency of offense
other occasions received the same penalty
Before You Begin
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Evaluation criteria must be developed
– sufficiently specific
– job related
– possess standards
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Employee must know standards and procedures
Criteria must be uniformly applied
Evaluation must be systematic and regular
Evaluation must be conducted by trained personnel
Data must be collected and available
Post-evaluation conferences should be held where
deficiencies are detailed and remediation suggested
(written instructions are a must)
Employee should have the right to comment and see
file
Reasonable time for remediation
Follow-up evaluations should be conducted
All statutes, regulations, board policies, and collective
bargaining agreements should be observed (contact
attorney)
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How
Learning Occurs
• Determinants of Learning
– What are the conditions necessary for learning to
occur?
– How can teachers and administrators insure that
these conditions are present?
– What student behaviors should the principal look
for?
– What questions should be asked of students?
– What teacher behaviors should the principal look
for?
– What questions should be asked of teachers?
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Determinants of
Learning
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Basic ability level
Past history and experiences
Current opportunity to learn
Quality of instruction
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Basic Ability Level
of the
Student
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Student ability to
– acquire basic knowledge
– link basic knowledge into patterns or schema that
represent concepts
– link current knowledge to past learning - transfer
– link knowledge about one subject to another transfer
– mentally manipulate abstract ideas
– synthesis information
– create new knowledge
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Schools can not control the student's
entering cognitive ability levels but they
can adjust the instructional and curricular
program to capitalize on existing levels of
ability.
Key questions for the Principal to ask:
– Is the instructional and curricular programs
appropriate for the current ability level of students?
• Do students understand the lesson and can they describe the
important concepts or facts?
• Do students understand the relationships among the concepts or
facts?
• Do students understand the relationship between the
developmental part of the lesson and the assignments?
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Past History and
Experiences of the
Student
• Relates to the breadth and depth of
students' prior history and experiences
• Students bring some of this information
with them but also acquire a substantial
amount from prior schooling experiences.
• Key questions for the principal
– Are essential experiences present?
– Does the teacher employ diagnostic techniques that
enables them to use:
• prior student experiences?
• prior student knowledge?
• transfer principles?
– How does the current lesson link to past school
experiences?
– How does the current lesson directly link to the
previous lesson?
– How does the current lesson link to lessons in other
subject areas?
– How does the current lesson build on or utilize
student background knowledge?
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Opportunity to
Learn
• Dependent on five concepts or factors
– Time allocated - the amount of teacher instructional
time established for that particular subject
– Time provided - the amount of time the teacher
actually devotes to teaching of that particular subject
– Time experienced - the amount of time a student is
actually is engaged in learning
– Academic learning time - the amount of time a
student is engaged working on teacher directed
tasks at a 80% success rate
– Review - the extent to which a student is given the
opportunity for additional ALT
• Key questions for the principal
– What is the engagement rate for the class as a
whole?
– What is the engagement rate for students throughout
the class period?
– What is the engagement rate for different groups of
students (minority, majority, high ability, low ability,
transfer students, etc..)?
– Are all students at the ALT level?
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Quality of
Instruction
• What the student experiences is the key
question.
• Key Questions for the principal
– What is the appropriateness of the lesson given the:
• students' developmental level?
• students' readiness?
• continuity from previously learned contents or
processes?
– How much emphasis is placed on important concepts
and principles?
• is their an overemphasis on facts and recall?
• do the facts help illustrate the concepts?
• does the teacher relate the concepts to prior learning and
student
experiences?
– What is the clarity level of the presentations from a
student perspective?
• are they organized from the perspective of the student?
• is the vocabulary appropriate to the students' level of
understanding?
• can the students anticipate the next steps in the lesson?
– Are concepts and principals presented with critical
attributes, non-critical attributes, and non-exemplars?
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Different Models of
Teaching
• Social Family
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Group Investigation
Role Playing
Cooperative Learning
Jurisprudential Inquiry
• Information-Processing Family
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Inductive Thinking via Hilda Taba
Concept Attainment
Scientific Inquiry
Memorization
Synectics
Advanced Organizers
• Personal Family
– Non-directive teaching
– Glasser’s Classroom meeting
• Behavioral Family
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Direct Instruction
Mastery Learning
Programmed Instruction
Simulations
The Social Family
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Group Investigation
Role Playing
Cooperative Learning
Jurisprudential Inquiry
Cooperative
Learning
• Assumptions
– cooperative settings are more synergistic--more than
the sum of the parts
– more helping hands since there are potentially more
teachers
– interaction with others produces cognitive as well as
social complexity
– cooperation produces positive feelings toward one
another
– increases self-esteem through gaining respect of others
and increased learning
– increases opportunity to learn to work together
Group
Investigation
• Assumptions
– Democratic principles are best learned through
practice and involvement
– Knowledge is individually constructed and shaped by
reflection and external group interactions
– The ability to negotiate problem solutions with others
helps individuals understand their own world. The
model replicates the negotiation process needed by
society
– Outcomes of educational experience are not totally
predictable and cannot be pre-specified with exactness
– Process combines dynamics of the democratic process
with academic inquiry
Role Playing
• Assumptions
– Possible to create authentic analogies to real life and
students can sample these situations through roleplaying
– Role-playing can draw out students’ feelings which
they can recognize and study
– Emotions and ideas can be brought to consciousness
and enhanced by group activities
– Individuals can gain control over belief systems if
they recognize their values and attitudes and test them
against the views of others
– Walk in another’s shoes analogy
Jurisprudential
Inquiry
• Assumptions
– Resolving complex issues requires citizens who can
talk to one another and negotiate differences
– Resolution should rest on the concepts of justice and
human dignity
– Success depends on
• understanding values of society
• ability to clarify and resolve issues
• knowledge of public issues
InformationProcessing Family
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Inductive Thinking via Hilda Taba
Concept Attainment
Scientific Inquiry
Memorization
Synectics
Advanced Organizers
Inductive Thinking
• Assumptions
– Content is important but so is learning how to think
– Thinking can be taught
– Thinking is an active transaction between the
individual and the data
– Thought processes evolve in a predictable and ordered
way that cannot be altered
– Taba suggested the use of three strategies
• Concept formation
• Interpretation of the data
• Application of principals
Concept
Attainment
• Assumptions
– Concepts are essential for understanding
– Concepts are ways of linking unrelated information
– Mental concepts are a way of organizing information
and assisting memory
– Concepts are the file folders of the mind
– Based on distinguishing between exemplars and nonexemplars
– All concepts have a name, belong to a larger class and
possess criterial attributes that define membership
• A triangle is closed plane that has only three sides
• A dog is a member of the canine family that ....
Scientific Inquiry
• Assumptions
– While facts are important, it is also important for kids
to be able to execute the scientific method
– Teaching of only facts leads students to believe that
science is fixed truths and not an active evolving
process
– Students need to see the “humanity” in science and
understand how we have reached tentative hypotheses
about how things work
– Much of the work is based on post-Sputnik revisions
of the science curriculum (BSCS, Chem Study, SAPA,
etc....)
Memorization
• Assumptions
– Personal power is derived from knowledge
– Memorization increases the storehouse of knowledge
which can be accessed rapidly
– Increasing the amount in memory is like having a
larger hard drive full of information
– Mnemonics is a way of helping students better
connect these bits of information and thus retaining
more usable information
Synectics
• Assumptions
– Creativity is important in everyday activities
– Creativity is not mysterious, it can be described and
taught
– Creativity is similar in all fields. The same processes
underlie all fields
– Individual and group investigation are very similar
– Bringing creative process to consciousness and
developing aids can enhance the product
– Emotional component is more important than
intellectual
– Irrationality more important than rational
– Metaphors and analogies are the key to this process
Advanced
Organizers
• Assumptions
– Efficient transmission of information is a desirable
goal for teachers
– Teacher should plays the role of organizer and
presenter of subject matter through lectures, readings,
and structured tasks
– Advanced organizers help prepare the mind for this
information - create a cognitive structure for the
information
– Each subject discipline has a way of organizing the
content of the filed. Students can use this
organizational patterns to help understand new content
– Much of this models resembles a computer
The Personal
Family
• Purpose One - develop greater mental and
emotional health by developing self-confidence
and a realistic sense of self
• Purpose Two - increase the proportion of
education that emanates from student
• Purpose Three - develop specific kinds of
qualitative thinking such as creativity, personal
expression, and reflection
• Types - nondirective teaching and concepts of self
Nondirective
Teaching
• Based on work of Carl Rogers in nondirective
counseling
• Focus is to nurture not control students
• Teacher does not sacrifice the long view by
forcing immediate results
• Responsibility shifts to students with teacher as
facilitator
• Assumptions
– students should learn to solve own problems even
though they may initially make mistakes
– teacher facilitates this problem solving
– teacher and student work as partners in the process
Behavioral Systems
Family
• Behavioral is lawful and subject to variables in
the environment
• Stimulus-response-reinforcement cycle increases
likelihood of response
• Operant conditioning and counter conditioning
are two forms
• Assumptions
– behavioral is observable and can be altered
– good and poor behaviors and attitude are learned
through conditioning
– behavioral goals are specific, discrete and individual
– theory focuses on present
Major Concepts of
Behavioral Systems
Family
• Stimulus - any condition, event, or change in the
environment which produces a behavioral change
• Responses may be overt or covert (tension or
anxiety)
• Complex behaviors are made up of response
repertoires
• Immediate reinforcement is best
• Reinforcers may be positive or negative
• Knowledge of results is very powerful in schools
• Baby steps are best
• Controlling the environment is powerful for
students
• Social climate of classroom can be important
• Reinforcement schedule is important
Mastery Learning
and Programmed
Instruction
• Built on the work of John Carroll and Benjamin
Bloom
• Defined aptitude as the amount of time it takes to
learn something rather that capacity to master it
• Degree of learning is a function of
–
–
–
–
time allowed to learn
quality of instruction
student’s ability to understand instruction
aptitude in that area
Bloom’s Version of
Mastery Learning
• Mastery is defined in terms of sets of objectives
• Content is divided into a larger sets of objectives
for each unit
• Learning material are identified and the
instructional strategy selected
• Each unit is accompanied by a diagnostic test.
Knowledge is fed back to the student
• Data is used to modify instruction
Direct Instruction
• From the behavioral systems family
• Characteristics
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
teacher controlled
direct teacher input
large student groups
students test knowledge through controlled practice
frequent reviews
high structure
low level of student choice
minimal non-academic talk
businesslike with time highly controlled
basic skill orientation
Learning from
Simulations
• Cybernetics - self-regulated feedback systems
• Learning tasks can be made much simpler and
safer
• Student learns from self-generated feedback
• Most of the teaching goes into model construction
• Sim City, Oregon Trail, Carmen San Diego, Star
Trek, Flight Simulators
Delphi Process
• A method for collection and organization of
expert opinions with the goal of reaching
consensus
• A way of pooling expert opinion in
situations where objective criteria are not
available
• Characterized by
– anonymity
– controlled feedback
• Uses
–
–
–
–
identification of goal priority in schools
identification of strengths and weaknesses
identification of future directions
comparisons of priorities across different groups
48
Processes
•
•
•
•
Selection of experts or participants
Generations of statements about topic
Combination of ideas
Individual reconsideration based on
feedback
• Successive round of review
– Round 1 - generation of ideas
– Round 2 - presentation of statistical summary of
round 1 followed by individual reconsideration and
resubmission
– Round 3 - summary of previous responses and short
reasons for differences if any
– At this point consensus is generally reached or at
least known positions emerge
49
Effective Schools
• What Factors Are Associated with
Instructionally Effective Schools
–
–
–
–
–
Coleman's Report
Effective Schools Movement
Criticism of Effective Schools Movement
A larger view of School Effectiveness
Linking School Effectiveness and Professional
Development
50
Instructionally
Effective
Schools
• James Coleman--Equality of Educational
Opportunity (1960)
– Examined teacher academic credentials,
expenditures, instructional materials, SES, structure
and age of plant, racial mix, etc..
– Concluded that most school variables had little or no
relationship to student achievement
– Composition of student population mattered the most
– Parent SES was strongest variable
– Many concluded that control of achievement was
beyond the control of the school--schools made little
difference
• Christopher Jenks--Inequality: A
Reassessment of the Effect of Family and
Schooling in America
– Jenks looked at what employment students secured
after leaving school instead of academic achievement
– He also reassessed Coleman's data and reaffirmed
that school success was largely a result of SES--not
of teachers or schools
– Socioeconomic background was the best predictor of
future jobs
– Schools actually contributed to the inequality
51
Explaining School
Achievement
District Effects
School Effects
(Organizational
Development)
Classroom Effects
(Individual Development)
Student Characteristics
52
Alternative View of
Effects
Basketball Achievement
Food
Training
Coaching
Native Ability
Coordination
Attitude
Rest
53
Effective Schools
Movement
• Edmonds, Brookover, Lezotte
– Wanted to show that schools do make a difference
– Compared schools with higher and lower that
predicted academic achievement scores--outlier
studies
– Concluded that achievement was not beyond the
control of schools
– Schools could make a difference
– Effective school correlates
•
•
•
•
•
strong leadership
climate of high expectations
orderly but not rigid atmosphere
frequent monitoring of student progress
emphasis on acquisition of basic skills
• Brookover added
– emphasis on academics
– teacher efficacy
– less satisfaction with quality of instruction in high
achieving schools
54
Criticism of
Effective
Schools Correlates
• Limited size of sample--urban elementary
schools
• Conflicting findings
• All based on case study design or
correlational
• Singular definition of
effectiveness--standardized tests
• Failure to describe mechanism of how they
worked
• Some schools that were effective one year
were not the next
• Correlates continue to expand and now
cover about everything
55
Effectiveness
Concepts
• Adaptation--the school's ability to
understand and accommodate
successfully to the external environment
–
–
–
–
sustaining interest and support for the school
compete for resources
possess sensitive monitoring mechanisms
keep abreast of new instructional methods
• Goal Attainment--the school's ability to
define objectives, mobilize resources, and
achieve desired ends
–
–
–
–
define objectives
mobilize resources
achieve desired ends
productivity, resource acquisition, efficiency,
quality, quantity
Effectiveness
Concepts
Continued
• Integration--the ability of the school to
organize, coordinate, and unify the various
school tasks necessary for achievement
– organize, coordinate, and unify the various school
tasks
– develop internal trust
– reduce internal conflict, promote cohesion
• Maintenance-- school's ability to create
and maintain the schools motivational and
value structure
– loyalty, sense of common direction, job satisfaction,
job commitment, motivation
57
Examples of the
Four
Processes
• encouraging cooperative planning between
the librarian and the third grade teachers
• working with the fourth grade teachers on
the math curriculum
• hosting faculty parties before the winter
break
• examining individual staff workloads and
distributing responsibilities appropriately
• keeping accurate attendance records
• encouraging testimonials of the
effectiveness of certain past school
practices
• encouraging parent-teacher cooperation
and communications
• establishing parent advisory boards
• having teachers exchange positions on a
regular basis
58
Example 1
Example A
50
40
Adaptation
30
Inte gration
Goal Attainm e nt
20
Mainte nance
10
0
Example B
60
50
40
30
Adaptation
Inte gration
Goal Attainm e nt
20
Mainte nance
10
0
59
Example 2
Example A
70
60
50
Adaptation
40
Inte gration
30
Goal Attainm e nt
20
Mainte nance
10
0
Example B
70
60
50
Adaptation
40
Inte gration
30
Goal Attainm e nt
20
Mainte nance
10
0
60
Example 3 Old and
New
Principals
Old Principal
1
0.8
Adaptation
0.6
Inte gration
Goal Attainm e nt
0.4
Mainte nance
0.2
0
New Principal
1
0.8
Adaptation
0.6
0.4
Integration
Goal Attainment
Maintenance
0.2
0
61
Staff Development
Overview
• Overview of Staff Development
• Trends in Staff Development
• Specific Examples or Practices
– Peer Coaching
– Wheaton Career Ladder
62
Staff Development
• Designed to
– improve
– develop
– promote
• Key Concepts
– interrelationship among system, unit and individual
goals
– includes all school personnel
– aimed at satisfying two kinds of expectations
• system--organizational development
• individual--individual development
– includes all activities designed to increase an
individual's ability to perform assignments
– focused on school and self-initiated approaches
– should be developmental in nature
– outcome based
– use existing knowledge about learning
– knowledge of adult learner is essential
63
Trends in Staff
Development
•From
To
•Inservice training
Staff Development
•Development of teaching staff Development of staff
•Self-fulfillment
Individual, unit, org. goals
•Event orientation
Continuous process
•Focus on technique
Focus on objective
•Homogeneous experience
Heterogeneous experience
•Learner in passive role
Learner in active role
•Assuming positive impact
Evaluating impact
•Knowledge emphasis
Performance emphasis
•Independent activities
Linked activities
•One shot
Planned curriculum
64
Clues from
Research
• participant involvement
• collectively designed programs with
common purpose, not a collection of
individual programs
• permitted teachers/administrators
sponsorship, design, selection, and
funding
• scheduled at non-competitive times
• emphasize teacher responsibility
• involved participants in both receptive and
active roles
• immediate practice best
• leaders were linked to University or
development center
• demonstrations were common
• conducted at local site
65
Second and Third Order
Possibilities-Curriculum
• Getting the Curriculum in Order
– Deciding what is important to know, appreciate, skills
to have
– Deciding what is not important that can be discarded
– Deciding what level of development in each area is
desirable
• Possibilities
–
–
–
–
Focusing on the really important stuff
Linking subject material
Identifying the key concepts and principles to teach
Establishment of curriculum review groups with
release time for review and research
66
Second and Third Order
Possibilities-Instruction
• Aligning the Instructional Program
–
–
–
–
–
–
How to facilitate learning in each area
What time periods need to devoted and in what order
What repetition factor is necessary
What assessment system should be in place
How to handle different learning rates
Managing movement through curriculum
• Possibilities
– Block schedules, flex-time schedules, year-round
school
– Extensive tracking with provisions to move across
tracks
– Time built into the day or week for extensive
assistance (maybe optional)
– 45-15 plans or other variations
– Peer tutoring
– Employment of massive number of aides
– Use of older students with pay (summer jobs)
– Use of intern teachers or college students
67
Second and Third Order
Possibilities-Use of
Personnel
• Getting the Most out of People
– Using people at their maximum level
– Employing people who have skill levels matching the
job
– Avoiding under-utilization of people
– Providing alternative careers
– Varying the work year, week, or day
– Using younger and older employees when
advantageous
– Paying in accordance with responsibility
– Reconsidering reward systems
• Possibilities
– Greater use of aides to execute routine functions
– Viewing teachers as directors not conveyors of
information
– Extended contracts, shortened contracts, job-sharing
– Work team responsible for a certain number of
students
– Over-staffing buildings with no subs
– Induction and deduction programs
68
Second and Third Order
Possibilities-Staff
Development
• Keeping Staff Current
– Viewing development as a professional obligation
– Viewing development as continuous
– Viewing development in three ways
• teaching skill development
• knowledge of subject development
• knowledge of students development
– Linking development and evaluation
– Knowing what others do
• Possibilities
– Teacher exchange programs
– District supported continuing education
– Meaningful linkage to evaluation system - goal
directed
– Linkages with other area school districts
– Linkages with area colleges
– True professional development schools
– Laboratory schools
– Release time for development of system useful
projects
69
Second and Third Order
PossibilitiesOrganizational
Development
• Enhancing the Functioning of the
Organization
– Better integration among parts
– Increased commitment to core goals
– Clear expectations for staff, students and
administration
– Viewing school as "us" not "them" or "the
administration's"
• Possibilities
–
–
–
–
–
–
Smaller units or "schools-within-schools"
School-wide sharing of achievement data
Reports of "what they are doing"
Classroom visitations
Frequent internal teacher exchanges
Joint assessment of students
70
Frames of
Reference
• Understanding Schools to Start With
through Boleman and Deal's Frame's of
Reference
• Fullan's Thoughts and the Change Process
• Levels of Concern Instrument
66
Boleman and Deal's
Frames of Reference
• Four useful frames
–
–
–
–
Structural Frame
Human Resource Frame
Political Frame
Symbolic Frame
67
Structural
Approach
• Assumptions of the Approach
– organizations exist primarily to accomplish
established goals
– for any organization, there is a structure appropriate
to the goals, the environment, the technology, and the
participants
– organizations work best when environmental
turbulence and the personal preferences of
participants are constrained by norms of rationality
– specialization permits higher levels of individual
expertise and performance
– coordination and control are accomplished but
through the exercise of authority and impersonal
rules
– structures can be systematically designed and
implemented
– problems usually reflect an inappropriate structure
and can be reached through redesign
68
Human Resource
Frame
of Reference
• While rationality is a central motif in the
structural perspective, the interplay
between the organization and people is the
focus of the human resource frame
• HR frame assumes that people are the most
critical resource in an organization
• Built around several assumptions
– organizations exist to serve human needs
– organizations and people need each other
– when the fit is poor, the organization and individual
will suffer
– when the fit is good, both will benefit
69
Political Frame of
Reference
• The political frame views organizations as
"alive" political arenas that house a
complex variety of interest groups
• Assumptions of the political frame
– important decisions involve the allocation of scare
resources
– organizations are coalitions composed of a number of
individuals and interest groups
– interest groups differ in their values, preferences,
beliefs, and perceptions of reality
– differences are usually enduring and change slowly
– organizational goals and decisions emerge from
ongoing bargaining
– power and conflict are central features of
organizational life
• Goal development in public agencies
typically results in a confusing mix of
statements, many of which are in conflict
70
Symbolic Frame of
Reference
• Departs significantly from a world of
rational thought
• Major assumptions of the symbolic frame
– Importance of an event is derived not from what
happened but the meaning of what happened
– Meaning is determined by the ways that humans and
groups interpret what happened
– It is often difficult to know exactly what happened in
an organization, why it happened, or what will happen
next
– Ambiguity and uncertainty undermine rational
approaches
– Humans create symbols to reduce the ambiguity,
resolve confusion, increase predictability, and
provide direction
• Centers on the concepts of meaning, belief,
faith
• Played out in the form of Myths, Metaphors,
and Scenarios
71
Fullan’s Thoughts on
Understanding
Change
• The soundness of the proposed change
– Fullan refers to the concepts of opportunism and
problem solving when describing a school-district
decision to engage in a particular reform
• Analysis: Give an example of each type of decision
from your own
district
– The degree of adaptation, implementation, and
continuance depends on the interface between
individual and collective meaning and action
– In examining how and what decisions are made we
should keep in mind two critical questions: who
benefits from the change (the values question) and
how sound are the ideas and approaches
– Analysis: For each of the cells, describe the type of
innovation that might be representative.
Types of
Implementation
Outcomes of
Adopted Changes
Value and
technical
quality
Actual implementation
of the change
yes
no
yes
no
72
Understanding the
Failure of
Well-intentioned
Change
• Implementation has often resulted in two
forms of non-change: false clarity without
change and painful unclarity without
change
– false clarity occurs when people think that they have
changed but have only assimilated the superficial
trappings of the new practice
– painful unclarity is when unclear innovations are
attempted under conditions that do not support the
development of the subjective meaning of the
change
Nature of Change
• Possibilities
– goals are specific and clear, but the means of
implementation are vague
– the beliefs and goals are abstract, vague, and
unconnected with other dimensions
– the number of changes implies is overwhelming
• Realities of the status quo
– Typical situation of a educator is fixity and a welter
of forces keeping things the way they are
– Little room for change-external change is bitterly
resisted
– Strong tendency in people to change as little as
possible
• Deepness of change
– potential changes in values, beliefs, skills,
relationships
• Question of valuing
–
–
–
–
What's in it for me
What's in it for the students
What's in it for the profession
How is this consistent with my other values and
beliefs
Phases
•
"The capacity to bring about change and
the capacity to bring about improvement
are two different matters"
• One-initiation, mobilization, or adoption
• Two-implementation or initial use (2-3
years)
• Three-continuation-institutionalization
75
Factors associated
with
Initiation
•
•
•
•
•
•
existence and quality of innovation
access to information
advocacy from the central office
teacher advocacy
external change agents
community pressure, support, opposition,
apathy
• new policy and funds
• problem-solving and bureaucratic
orientation
– bureaucratic safety
– response to external pressure
– approval of peer elites
• The actual process
– relevance (practicality and need)
– readiness (capacity and need)
– resources (availability)
76
Factors Affecting
Implementation
Characteristics of Change
Need
Clarity
Complexity
Quality/Practicality
Local Characteristics
District
Community
IMPLEMENTATION
Principal
Teacher
External Factors
Government
Professional Associations
Press
Employment opportunities
5
77
Factors Affecting
Continuation
Induction of
new staff
Building of
broad-based
support
Administrative
support
Continuation
Active planning for
modification and
refinement
Incorporation into
normal district
operations
78
Levels of Concern
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Awareness--little concern about or involvement with
innovation
Informational--general awareness and interest in
learning more details
Personal--individual is uncertain about the demands of
the innovation, her/his inadequacy to meet those
demands, and her/his role with the innovation
Management--Attention is focused on the processes
and
tasks of using the innovation and the best use of
information and resources
Consequence--attention focuses on impact of the
innovation on students in her/his immediate sphere of
influence
Collaboration--focus is on coordination and
cooperation
with others regarding use of the innovation
Refocusing--focus on exploration of more universal
benefits from the innovation, including the possibility
of major changes
Refocusing
Collaboration
Consequence
Management
Personal
Informational
Awareness
Example Levels of
Concern
90
80
70
60
50
Ralph
Jenny
Susan
40
30
20
10
0
80
Potential
Research Topics in Staff
Development
86
Closure
• Registration for Fall
• Synthesis of Reports
– Form Pairs
– Summarize findings across assigned category
•
•
•
•
Similarities?
Differences?
What can we learn?
Share results with class
• Course Evaluation
82