Transcript Week 2 - University of Pennsylvania

LING 001 Introduction to Linguistics
Spring 2010
Language Variation
Regional variation
Social variation
Mar. 24
Do you speak American?
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http://www.pbs.org/speak
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Dialect vs. language
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When groups of speakers differ noticeably in their language, they are
often said to speak different dialects of the language:
• Regional dialects: the southern dialects, etc.
• Social dialects: the working-class dialects, etc.
• Ethnic dialects: the African American English, etc.
dialect in linguistics does not imply ‘substandard’ or ‘incorrect’. The socalled Standard English is also a dialect of English, which is no more
‘correct’ than any other form of English.
Mutual intelligibility is often used to determine dialects (note: one-way
intelligibility, e.g., Danish vs. Swedish), however, it is considerably
complicated by political, social, and religious factors.
• Mandarin and Cantonese: no mutual intelligibility, but historical
related, spoken in the same nation, using the same writing system.
• Serbian and Croatian: mutually intelligible, different nations,
different alphabets.
• “a language is just a dialect with an army and a navy!”
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Regional Dialects of American English
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By the time of the American Revolution (1776-83), three major dialect
areas had developed in the eastern United States: the north, the
midland, and the south.
As waves of English-speaking settlers moved westward, they took their
dialects with them. The three major American dialects spread west,
blurring and merging as they went.
Dialect maps of North America show a “fanning out” from the east, and
a general mixed dialect in the westmost areas of the United States.
At the same time, some newer dialect areas in the West are now
becoming more distinctive from other varieties of American English. For
example, The West Coast speech is increasingly characterized by the
fronting of high back vowels (boot -> biwt; good -> gid)
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Regional Dialects of American English
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Easter dialects are numbered, arrows indicate direction of major
migrations.
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Regional Variation in Lexical Items
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On the basis of lexical variation, it has been suggested that there are
really only two main dialect areas: North and South, with the dividing
line roughly along the Ohio River.
The North is further divided into the upper North and New England, the
lower North (North Midland), and the West. The South is divided into
lower South and upper South (South Midland).
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Regional Variation in Lexical Items
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http://popvssoda.com:2998/
“What generic word do you use to describe carbonated soft
drinks? (Note that these could be of any brand or type, CocaCola, Pepsi, 7-Up, etc. We are concerned with the overall word,
not a specific brand.) ”
Total responses: 311,969
• pop: 123,361 (39.54% of all responses)
• soda: 124,278 (39.84% of all responses)
• coke: 48,942 (15.69% of all responses)
• other: 15,388 (4.93% of all responses): soft drink, tonic, soda
pop, etc.
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Regional Variation in Lexical Items
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A carbonated soft drink is called:
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Regional Variation in Phonology
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The Atlas of North American English (Labov, Ash & Boberg
2006, available on line at Penn library): A total of 762 subjects
were interviewed from the 297 communities.
The phonological dialects whose differences can be manifested
on the basis of ongoing sound changes:
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New England
New York City and the Mid-Atlantic States
The North: The Northern Cities Shift
The Midland
The South
The West: the fronting of /uw/ but not /ow/, the low back
merger of /o/ and /oh/
• Canada
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The Northern Cities Shift
desk
[ɪə]
busses
[ɔ]
[ɛ]
mat
head
[æ]
block
[ɑ]
boss
socks
LING 001 Introduction to Linguistics, Spring 2010
Intonation variation in the British Isles
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Social variation
• Besides geographical region, language variation can be based
on many other factors:
• Gender
• Age
• Social class
• Ethnicity
• Speech context
• A classic example of social categories marked by pronunciation
is the status of [r] in English, when that sound is not followed by
a vowel (i.e. when it's in the coda of a syllable):
• r-ful (or "rhotic") pronunciation: New York
• r-less (or "non-rhotic") pronunciation: New Yawk
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R in early American English
• When the English colonies were founded in America, the
prestige pattern in England was to pronounce all r's, and that's
what the first colonists brought with them.
• During the 18th century, however, the prestige form in England
(based especially on London speech) developed the "r-less"
pronunciation that is still standard there today.
• As r-lessness was gaining prestige in England, colonies in
Tidewater Virginia and Eastern New England became /r/-less
because people in these areas maintained strong ties with the
London area.
• Other areas such as Western New England, New York State,
Philadelphia, and upland Virginia remained /r/-ful.
• The New York City was a /r/-ful speech area until at least the
mid-nineteenth century, when /r/-lessness spread into the city
from New England and firmly established there.
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New York Department store study
• After World War II, the prestige form of r in the New York area
was shifting from this r-less pronunciation to the more general rful pattern found in most of the country.
• In results published in 1962, Labov studied the speech of the
clerks in three department stores in NYC that catered to different
social classes.
Saks 5th Avenue
(high prestige)
Macy’s
(middle prestige)
LING 001 Introduction to Linguistics, Spring 2010
S. Klein
(low prestige)
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R-fulness and status
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Labov asked a clerk for the location of some previously chosen item
located on the fourth floor, and then asked "Excuse me?" to get a more
emphatic, careful pronunciation as well.
The overall results show that the clerks pronounced [r] more often
when they worked in a higher-prestige store. The category "some"
refers to at least one r-ful syllable out of the four.
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R-fulness and emphasis
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The stressed word floor had more overall r-fulness.
In the careful pronunciation, especially of floor, the lower the prestige,
the greater the increase in use of [r] when speaking more carefully.
The workers at Macy's and S. Klein were linguistically insecure and
tended to adjust their pronunciation in the direction of the prestige form
when speaking more carefully.
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R-fulness and age at Saks
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The older Saks workers reflect the fact that the r-less pronunciation
was previously the prestige form in New York. They are linguistically
secure, and have largely maintained their pronunciation in the face of
change.
The younger Saks workers grew up as the r-ful prestige form was being
established, and so have adopted it in greater numbers.
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R-fulness and age at Macy’s
• The older Macy's workers are upwardly mobile and linguistically
insecure: they have adopted the newer prestige form, using it
more than the same-aged workers at Saks. This is called
hypercorrection.
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Hypercorrection
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Hypercorrection by the lower middle class, as a result of linguistic
insecurity, was confirmed in a more detailed study by Labov.
Lower middle class speakers (6-8) are hypercorrecting in more formal
styles, so that they use more [r] than the upper middle class (9).
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Follow-up studies
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Replications of the original 1962 study, conducted in 1986 and 1996,
show very similar patterns persisting in New York, with increases in the
use of [r] in all categories, although the same relative differences
according to the prestige of the store.
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Age and sex
• People’s language can vary according to their age in two ways:
• Individuals can change as they age (age-grading)
• Individual can stay the same as they age, but the community
can all change together from one generation to another (The
view of language use by age gives us a snapshot of change
in progress, apparent time interpretation)
• Language change is often led by females.
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Acoustic study of vowel change
• Vowel height/frontness is closely related to the first/second
formant frequency:
low vowels -> higher F1, front vowels -> higher F2
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Fronting of /aw/ in Philadelphia
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Summary
• Language is embedded in culture and society, and carries the
respective values.
• People are quite sensitive to the sociocultural implications of
language variation.
• Analysis of language variation requires structural knowledge of
language (e.g., Labov’s article for reading this week on African
American English).
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