Transcript History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences

Chapter 2
39 slides
Ancient Uses and Explorations
Prehistory and the Rise of Seafaring
History doesn’t record who the first people were to
explore the oceans, nor when. But archaeologists date
Native American primitive fishhooks and spears to 5000
B.C.
When was the first sea voyage in a ship? No one knows
although several cultures have similar stories of a
worldwide flood and a large boat full of animals, the
existence of the Ark (4000 B.C.) is widely debated.
Therefore, the earliest recorded sea voyage seems to have
taken place around 3200 B.C. by the Egyptians. At this time,
the north star was not Polaris but Thuban.
Ancient Phoenician Explorations and
Discoveries
Phoenicia was an ancient civilization centered in the
north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the
coast of modern day Lebanon, Syria and northern Israel.
Phoenician civilization was an enterprising maritime
trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean
during the first millennium BC, between the period of
1200 BC to 900 BC.
Ancient Phoenician Explorations and
Discoveries
Ancient Phoenician Explorations and
Discoveries
The ancient Phoenicians were among the most important early
Western seafarers.
Traveled great distances for their day.
Established the first trade routes throughout the Mediterranean
and as far north as Great Britain.
They steered at night by observing the constellations and the
north star (Polaris, 430 l.y.a.) – in the ancient world, the north star
was called the Phoenician Star. This is one of the earliest
references to using the North Star for navigation.
Ancient Polynesian Explorations and
Discoveries
The significance of
Polynesian seafaring is that it
is the earliest known regular,
long distance, open ocean
seafaring beyond sight of
land.
It’s estimated that it took
more than 1000 years for the
area to be fully settled. But
had been so for hundreds of
years when the first
Europeans arrived.
Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
It was primarily the ancient Greeks who first used
mathematical principles and sophisticated maps for
seafaring.
By applying their advancements in early science and
mathematics, this culture contributed to understanding
the oceans in many ways.
Although western civilization would “lose” the knowledge
during the Middle Ages, the Greeks knew that the world
was a sphere and not flat.
Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
The Greek Pytheas noted that he could predict the tides
in the Atlantic based on the phases of the moon.
About 150 years later, Eratosthenes (264-194 B.C.)
calculated the Earth’s circumference and invented the first
lattitude/longitude system – a system of imaginary lines
on the Earth, used for navigation and mapping.
Hipparchus invented a better system – the one used today
– later.
Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
Evolution of ancient maps of the known world
The Latitude/Longitude System
One of the Greeks’ primary contributions to
oceanography and seafaring is the latitude/longitude
system.
Latitude lines run east-west and longitude lines run
north-south.
Because they run around the sphere of the Earth, they are
numbered in degrees. For further accuracy, degrees are
numbered into 60 minutes and minutes into 60 seconds
like time.
Latitude Lines
Longitude Lines
Prime Meridian and Equator
Longitude lines begin at one pole and end at the other.
Sometimes called meridians, the 0⁰ meridian runs
through the Royal Naval Observatory in Greenwich,
England.
This is called the Prime Meridian. Directly on the other
side of the world is the 180⁰ meridian.
If you are looking north, the meridians on the right of the
prime meridian are called east longitude all the way to the
180⁰ meridian.
Let’s apply what we just learned to find the
wreck of the Titanic!!!
49⁰ 56’ 49’’ W, 41⁰ 43’ 57’’ N
Did you navigate correctly?
49⁰ 56’ 49’’ W, 41⁰ 43’ 57’’ N
The European Middle Ages
The period of about 500 A.D. to
1500 in Europe is called the Middle
Ages (Also known as the dark ages
because Europe entered an age of
intellectual darkness.)
This was the period that we think of
when we think of knights, castles,
and feudalism.
Except for the Viking Voyages, there
was little ocean exploration by
Europeans during this period.
Middle Ages map of the know world
based on descriptions in the bible.
Viking Explorations and Discoveries
The Viking period stretches from about 790 A.D. to 1100.
During this period Vikings raided nearby land, explored, and
established trade routes throughout Britain, Ireland,
Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia.
This was the only significant exploration taking place in
Europe during this period.
Chinese Explorations and Discoveries
Although science and exploration lay idle in Europe during
the Middle Ages, that wasn’t the case in China.
Among many important contributions in that era, the
Chinese were responsible for inventing the magnetic
compass.
Shipbuilding: central rudders and watertight compartments.
End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around Africa
The Renaissance (~1400 A.D.) marked the end of the Middle
Ages in Europe.
With it came new interest in exploration and science.
Exploration of the New World
In 1492, Portuguese Christopher Columbus set out on the
first of his four famous voyages.
As others…..the purpose was to find a route to Asia and the
East Indies.
Because he was using Ptolemy’s estimation of the Earth’s size
(which was too small) He thought he’d reach Asia when he
landed on a Caribbean Island.
Vasco da Gama’s Journey to India
Magellan’s and Drake’s around the
world voyage of discovery
The Birth of Marine Science
(1700-1900)
As Britain began to compete with France and Spain for
Global conquest, they realized that the more they knew
about the seas and the world, the better.
The Royal Navy launched voyages with the objectives of
exploration, mapping, and projecting British presence
around the world.
The crew often included scientists and naturalists.
Cook’s Expeditions
The Voyages of Captain James Cook largely received credit as the first
expeditions devoted to scientific oceanography.
A major contribution to Cook’s voyages was the invention of the
chronometer – clock or watch that wasn’t affected by the waves and
motion of the sea.
One of his major missions was to map the path of Venus between the
Earth and the Sun in order to calculate the distance between the
Earth and the Sun.
Although he never found Antarctica, he did find the Hawaii islands
that was his downfall. He was considered an oceanographer,
anthropologist and naturalist.
Cook’s Expeditions
Darwin and the HMS Beagle
In addition to his work in the Galapagos and the rest of his five year voyage
aboard the Beagle – that we learned about in biology – Darwin also contributed
to modern day marine science.
Darwin hypothesized that the massive coral reefs they saw could only result when
the seafloor slowly sinks. This is accepted by most scientist today.
United States Exploring Expedition
One of the most important scientific expeditions launched by the US was the US
Exploring Expedition – also referred to as the Wilkes Expedition after its
commander, Charles Wilkes.
In addition to surveying many parts of North and South America, This
expedition found the elusive southern continent – Antarctica.
Approximately during the same time, US Naval officer Mathew Maury who was
among the first to envision a worldwide pattern for surface winds and currents
produced instructions for making long distance sailing more efficient by
working with the prevailing currents and winds.
Also, his systems for recording oceanographic data from vessels was adopted
worldwide.
The Challenger Expedition
Recognized as the only expedition to date that was
solely devoted to marine science.
The deepest place on Earth is the Challenger Deep
(35,798 ft.) in the Marianas Trench – named after the
expeditions that discovered it.
Mt. Everest – the highest point on Earth is 29,035 ft. tall
by comparison.
Challenger’s contributions to oceanography and marine
science were great. From over 4,700 new species to new
habitats not previously thought to hold life.
NASA named one of its orbiters in its honor.
The Challenger Expedition
Challenger Deep
The Challenger Space Orbiter
Later in the 20th century NASA named its Apollo 11
lunar module and its 2nd space orbiter – 1983 –
(Challenger) after this vessel.
Challenger the orbiter exploded 73 seconds into
launch on January 28th, 1986. It carried aboard
what was supposed to be the first teacher in space,
Sharon Christa Corrigan McAuliffe.
The alternate teacher chosen, Barbara Morgan,
completed that mission recently on August 7th,
2007 aboard shuttle Endeavour (21 years later)
Space Orbiter Challenger (1983-1986)
The Oceanography Explosion
Too many to list, the great increase in the
exploration of oceanography and marine
science in general stemmed in large part
from the industrial revolution with the
evolution of scientific and technological
advancements.
Three expeditions stand out though…
The German Meteor Expedition,
Atlantis, and the HMS Challenger II
One of the first modern research cruises, the Meteor’s main
accomplishment was the mapping of the Atlantic seafloor with echosounding technology.
In 1931, the US launched the Atlantis. The significance of the Atlantis is
that she was the first ship specifically designed and built for ocean
studies.
In 1951, the HMS Challenger II began a two year voyage to measure the
depths of the ocean. Its greatest discovery was the deepest known point
on Earth located at the Marianas Trench – discovered by the 1st
Challenger.
The deepest spot was named Challenger deep after the 1st vessel.
Atlantis the Space Orbiter
NASA honored the Atlantis expeditions by naming its 4th shuttle after it.
Atlantis the space orbiter first flew in 1985 and is still in service today.
Other Space Orbiters Were Also Named in Honor of
Historical Expedition of Our Oceans.
Columbia & Apollo 11 moon lander: American Ocean
vessel sent to circle the globe.
Discovery: Henry Hudson – Explored the Hudson Bay for
the Northwest passage from Atlantic to Pacific.
Endeavour (replacement for Challenger) named in honor
of Captain James Cook’s vessel.
The shuttle fleet will be retired in 2010 to
Extra Information
About
the Shuttle
make way for the next
generation
of space
exploration
vehicle. named Constitution.
1st shuttle built: Enterprise,
originally
Never flew in space but, was used to test the gliding
landings.
1st Shuttle in space: Columbia 1981. Heaviest of the fleet.
Destroyed on re-entry (February 1st, 2003) due to heat
shield damage from foam that hit wing on launch.
2nd Shuttle in space: Challenger 1983. Lost 73 seconds into
launch due to rocket booster failure on January 28th, 1986.
3rd Shuttle in space: Discovery 1984. Still in service.
4th Shuttle in space: Atlantis 1985. Still in service.
5th and last shuttle to be built: Endeavour 1992. Still in
service.
Fleet
The End