Transcript Daoism and Confucianism as Religions: The Philosophical Ground

The Philosophical Ground of the
Religions of Daoism & Confucianism
Mary I. Bockover
Professor of Philosophy
Humboldt State University
Arcata, California, USA
12-26-06
Chapter 14 of Laozi’s Daodejing
What cannot be seen is called evanescent;
What cannot be heard is called rarefied;
What cannot be touched is called minute.
These three cannot be fathomed
And so they are confused and looked upon as one.
Its upper part is not dazzling;
Its lower part is not obscure.
Dimly visible, it cannot be named
And returns to that which is without substance.
This is called the shape that has no shape,
The image that is without substance.
This is called indistinct and shadowy.
Go up to it and you will not see its head;
Follow behind it and you will not see its rear.
Hold fast to the way of antiquity
In order to keep in control the realm of today.
The ability to know the beginning of antiquity
Is called the thread running through the way. (D.C. Lau)
Dao (Tao): The Way of the Universe
Dao (Tao): The Way of the Universe

The source and sustainer of all
Dao (Tao): The Way of the Universe


The source and sustainer of all
Gave birth to the One, and from the One came the two (yin and
yang), and from the two came the 10,000 things (wan, or everything)
Dao (Tao): The Way of the Universe



The source and sustainer of all
Gave birth to the One, and from the One came the two (yin and
yang), and from the two came the 10,000 things (wan, or everything)
Gives rise to a “metaphysic” or cosmology that has Dao as the first
principle and final end of all things
Dao (Tao): The Way of the Universe




The source and sustainer of all
Gave birth to the One, and from the One came the two (yin and
yang), and from the two came the 10,000 things (wan, or everything)
Gives rise to a “metaphysic” or cosmology that has Dao as the first
principle and final end of all things
Is ultimate reality, so rarified that it cannot be perceived (or named)
Dao (Tao): The Way of the Universe





The source and sustainer of all
Gave birth to the One, and from the One came the two (yin and
yang), and from the two came the 10,000 things (wan, or everything)
Gives rise to a “metaphysic” or cosmology that has Dao as the first
principle and final end of all things
Is ultimate reality, so rarified that it cannot be perceived (or named)
Entails “what is” and “what is not”, being and non-being, change and
non-change, but is prior to the “opposites” -- is prior to all distinction
and differentiation that we refer to as “life”
Dao (Tao): The Way of the Universe






The source and sustainer of all
Gave birth to the One, and from the One came the two (yin and
yang), and from the two came the 10,000 things (wan, or everything)
Gives rise to a “metaphysic” or cosmology that has Dao as the first
principle and final end of all things
Is ultimate reality, so rarified that it cannot be perceived (or named)
Entails “what is” and “what is not”, being and non-being, change and
non-change, but is prior to the “opposites” -- is prior to all distinction
and differentiation that we refer to as “life”
Is referred to in “negative” or yin terms: as vacuity, being empty,
receptive, what is not, what we don’t have, what we don’t know,
what we can’t experience, what does not exist (at least in tangible
form)
Yin-Yang: Receptive-Creative
Yin-Yang: Receptive-Creative

The One refers to the harmonious blending of yin and yang
Yin-Yang: Receptive-Creative


The One refers to the harmonious blending of yin and yang
Metaphysically, the One is the “great ultimate” or unity of all Being
Yin-Yang: Receptive-Creative



The One refers to the harmonious blending of yin and yang
Metaphysically, the One is the “great ultimate” or unity of all Being
This unity consists of “opposite” yet complimentary forces that optimally
produce harmonious change in the world
Yin-Yang: Receptive-Creative




The One refers to the harmonious blending of yin and yang
Metaphysically, the One is the “great ultimate” or unity of all Being
This unity consists of “opposite” yet complimentary forces that optimally
produce harmonious change in the world
Dao is the normative “essence” of reality that drives such change
Yin-Yang: Receptive-Creative





The One refers to the harmonious blending of yin and yang
Metaphysically, the One is the “great ultimate” or unity of all Being
This unity consists of “opposite” yet complimentary forces that optimally
produce harmonious change in the world
Dao is the normative “essence” of reality that drives such change
Dao comes before the One too; before any distinction or differentiation
Yin-Yang: Receptive-Creative






The One refers to the harmonious blending of yin and yang
Metaphysically, the One is the “great ultimate” or unity of all Being
This unity consists of “opposite” yet complimentary forces that optimally
produce harmonious change in the world
Dao is the normative “essence” of reality that drives such change
Dao comes before the One too; before any distinction or differentiation
Spiritually, “knowing” the relation between yin and yang calls for a
“mystical” experience beyond ordinary distinctions and words, an
experience that cannot be named (can be thought of as simple and
childlike too)
Yin-Yang: Receptive-Creative







The One refers to the harmonious blending of yin and yang
Metaphysically, the One is the “great ultimate” or unity of all Being
This unity consists of “opposite” yet complimentary forces that optimally
produce harmonious change in the world
Dao is the normative “essence” of reality that drives such change
Dao comes before the One too; before any distinction or differentiation
Spiritually, “knowing” the relation between yin and yang calls for a
“mystical” experience beyond ordinary distinctions and words, an
experience that cannot be named (can be thought of as simple and
childlike too)
Dao is ultimately real, however, so rarified that it takes a direct spiritual
experience for it to be understood
Yin-Yang: Receptive-Creative








The One refers to the harmonious blending of yin and yang
Metaphysically, the One is the “great ultimate” or unity of all Being
This unity consists of “opposite” yet complimentary forces that optimally
produce harmonious change in the world
Dao is the normative “essence” of reality that drives such change
Dao comes before the One too; before any distinction or differentiation
Spiritually, “knowing” the relation between yin and yang calls for a
“mystical” experience beyond ordinary distinctions and words, an
experience that cannot be named (can be thought of as simple and
childlike too)
Dao is ultimately real, however, so rarified that it takes a direct spiritual
experience for it to be understood
What is ordinarily experienced is the power (de) Dao has on life and the
world we live in; in producing change that is harmonious or not
The Way: Ultimate Spiritual Reality
The Way: Ultimate Spiritual Reality

The Dao or Way of the World is tri-part: traditionally consisting of the
way of heaven, the way of earth, and the way of humanity
The Way: Ultimate Spiritual Reality


The Dao or Way of the World is tri-part: traditionally consisting of the
way of heaven, the way of earth, and the way of humanity
Taoists redefine this traditional distinction by referring to a “Way” that is
beyond ti’an or “heaven”, and by not deifying the way of humanity
(rendao) as superior to the rest of creation (the many, myriad, or 10,000
things)
The Way: Ultimate Spiritual Reality



The Dao or Way of the World is tri-part: traditionally consisting of the
way of heaven, the way of earth, and the way of humanity
Taoists redefine this traditional distinction by referring to a “Way” that is
beyond ti’an or “heaven”, and by not deifying the way of humanity
(rendao) as superior to the rest of creation (the many, myriad, or 10,000
things)
Hence, Daoists focus on yin principles: earth (k’un), receptivity, and the
feminine, childlike, simple, dark, empty, weak, paradoxical, mysterious,
“changeless” or “actionless” aspects of life
The Way: Ultimate Spiritual Reality




The Dao or Way of the World is tri-part: traditionally consisting of the
way of heaven, the way of earth, and the way of humanity
Taoists redefine this traditional distinction by referring to a “Way” that is
beyond ti’an or “heaven”, and by not deifying the way of humanity
(rendao) as superior to the rest of creation (the many, myriad, or 10,000
things)
Hence, Daoists focus on yin principles: earth (k’un), receptivity, and the
feminine, childlike, simple, dark, empty, weak, paradoxical, mysterious,
“changeless” or “actionless” aspects of life
This is in contrast to the traditional Chinese focus on yang principles:
heaven, creativity, or the masculine, sagely, cultured, light, full, strong,
definite, tangible, everchanging and active aspects of life
The Way: Ultimate Spiritual Reality





The Dao or Way of the World is tri-part: traditionally consisting of the
way of heaven, the way of earth, and the way of humanity
Taoists redefine this traditional distinction by referring to a “Way” that is
beyond ti’an or “heaven”, and by not deifying the way of humanity
(rendao) as superior to the rest of creation (the many, myriad, or 10,000
things)
Hence, Daoists focus on yin principles: earth (k’un), receptivity, and the
feminine, childlike, simple, dark, empty, weak, paradoxical, mysterious,
“changeless” or “actionless” aspects of life
This is in contrast to the traditional Chinese focus on yang principles:
heaven, creativity, or the masculine, sagely, cultured, light, full, strong,
definite, tangible, everchanging and active aspects of life
In truth, yin and yang are different aspects of the same ultimate reality
that we mistakenly distinguish as being separate in kind
The Way: Ultimate Spiritual Reality






The Dao or Way of the World is tri-part: traditionally consisting of the way
of heaven, the way of earth, and the way of humanity
Taoists redefine this traditional distinction by referring to a “Way” that is
beyond ti’an or “heaven”, and by not deifying the way of humanity
(rendao) as superior to the rest of creation (the many, myriad, or 10,000
things)
Hence, Daoists focus on yin principles: earth (k’un), receptivity, and the
feminine, childlike, simple, dark, empty, weak, paradoxical, mysterious,
“changeless” or “actionless” aspects of life
This is in contrast to the traditional Chinese focus on yang principles:
heaven, creativity, or the masculine, sagely, cultured, light, full, strong,
definite, tangible, everchanging and active aspects of life
In truth, yin and yang are different aspects of the same ultimate reality
that we mistakenly distinguish as being separate in kind
For example, dark is really just less light, receptivity is essential to
creativity, and, as death is a part of life, life is a part of death
The Way: Ultimate Spiritual Reality







The Dao or Way of the World is tri-part: traditionally consisting of the
way of heaven, the way of earth, and the way of humanity
Taoists redefine this traditional distinction by referring to a “Way” that is
beyond ti’an or “heaven”, and by not deifying the way of humanity
(rendao) as superior to the rest of creation (the many, myriad, or 10,000
things)
Hence, Daoists focus on yin principles: earth (k’un), receptivity, and the
feminine, childlike, simple, dark, empty, weak, paradoxical, mysterious,
“changeless” or “actionless” aspects of life
This is in contrast to the traditional Chinese focus on yang principles:
heaven, creativity, or the masculine, sagely, cultured, light, full, strong,
definite, tangible, everchanging and active aspects of life
In truth, yin and yang are different aspects of the same ultimate reality
that we mistakenly distinguish as being separate in kind
For example, dark is really just less light, receptivity is essential to
creativity, and, as death is a part of life, life is a part of death
Like Dao, death is darker than any mystery; is a mysterious change
about which we know very little…
Chuang Tzu (Zhuangzi)
Chuang Tzu’s wife died and Hui Tzu went to offer his condolence.
He found Chuang Tzu squatting on the ground and singing,
beating on an earthen bowl. He said, “Someone has lived with
you, raised children for you and now she has aged and died. Is it
not enough that you should not shed a tear? But now you sing
and beat the bowl. Is this not too much?”
“No,” replied Chuang Tzu. “When she died,how could I help being
affected? But as I think the matter over, I realize that originally
she had no life; and not only no life, she had no form; not only no
form, she had no material force (chi, qi). In the limbo of
existence and non-existence, there was transformation and the
material force was evolved. The material force was transformed
to be form, form was transformed to become life, and now birth
has transformed to become death. This is like the rotation of the
four seasons, spring, summer, fall, and winter. Now she lies
asleep in the great house (the universe). For me to go about
weeping and wailing would be to show my ignorance of destiny.
Therefore, I desist.” (ch. 18, 6:31b-32a; Wing Tsit Chan)
Chapter 5 of Laozi’s Daodejing
Heaven and earth are ruthless, and treat the myriad creatures as straw
dogs; the sage is ruthless, and treats the people as straw dogs.
Is not the space between heaven and earth like a bellows?
It is empty without being exhausted:
The more it works the more comes out.
Much speech leads inevitably to silence.
Better to hold fast to the void. (D.C. Lau)
The Daoist Religious Experience
The Daoist Religious Experience

Things come into being, and pass from being -- returning to Dao
The Daoist Religious Experience


Things come into being, and pass from being -- returning to Dao
This is the way of life, and there is no “justice” in it; the way of life and
the way of humanity are at odds because we have lost our way and
cannot change Dao
The Daoist Religious Experience



Things come into being, and pass from being -- returning to Dao
This is the way of life, and there is no “justice” in it; the way of life and
the way of humanity are at odds because we have lost our way and
cannot change Dao
Has practical consequences seen in our failing to live in accordance
with the Way (what is against the Dao will surely perish)
The Daoist Religious Experience




Things come into being, and pass from being -- returning to Dao
This is the way of life, and there is no “justice” in it; the way of life and
the way of humanity are at odds because we have lost our way and
cannot change Dao
Has practical consequences seen in our failing to live in accordance
with the Way (what is against the Dao will surely perish)
Has religious consequences that run even deeper: for life and death are
mysteries to be experienced instead of ideas to be confirmed
The Daoist Religious Experience





Things come into being, and pass from being -- returning to Dao
This is the way of life, and there is no “justice” in it; the way of life and
the way of humanity are at odds because we have lost our way and
cannot change Dao
Has practical consequences seen in our failing to live in accordance
with the Way (what is against the Dao will surely perish)
Has religious consequences that run even deeper: for life and death are
mysteries to be experienced instead of ideas to be confirmed
Death is just another change that is a part of life and leads back to the
void
The Daoist Religious Experience






Things come into being, and pass from being -- returning to Dao
This is the way of life, and there is no “justice” in it; the way of life and
the way of humanity are at odds because we have lost our way and
cannot change Dao
Has practical consequences seen in our failing to live in accordance
with the Way (what is against the Dao will surely perish)
Has religious consequences that run even deeper: for life and death are
mysteries to be experienced instead of ideas to be confirmed
Death is just another change that is a part of life and leads back to the
void
Daoist emptiness in not literally nothing though; non-being or nonchange refers to a different way of being and changing (like the yin-yang
relation)
The Daoist Religious Experience







Things come into being, and pass from being -- returning to Dao
This is the way of life, and there is no “justice” in it; the way of life and the
way of humanity are at odds because we have lost our way and cannot
change Dao
Has practical consequences seen in our failing to live in accordance with
the Way (what is against the Dao will surely perish)
Has religious consequences that run even deeper: for life and death are
mysteries to be experienced instead of ideas to be confirmed
Death is just another change that is a part of life and leads back to the
void
Daoist emptiness in not literally nothing though; non-being or non-change
refers to a different way of being and changing (like the yin-yang relation)
This Way is mysterious, but can be experienced as beautiful, perfect, and
complete (formless yet complete, latent in it are the forms)
The Daoist Religious Experience








Things come into being, and pass from being -- returning to Dao
This is the way of life, and there is no “justice” in it; the way of life and the
way of humanity are at odds because we have lost our way and cannot
change Dao
Has practical consequences seen in our failing to live in accordance with
the Way (what is against the Dao will surely perish)
Has religious consequences that run even deeper: for life and death are
mysteries to be experienced instead of ideas to be confirmed
Death is just another change that is a part of life and leads back to the
void
Daoist emptiness in not literally nothing though; non-being or non-change
refers to a different way of being and changing (like the yin-yang relation)
This Way is mysterious, but can be experienced as beautiful, perfect, and
complete (formless yet complete, latent in it are the forms)
Daoism calls upon us to BE ALIVE -- to simply appreciate what it means
to be living -- but paradoxically this is done by fully entering into the
mystery as a lived experience
Chapter 41 of Laozi’ Daodejing
When the best student hears about the way
He practices it assiduously;
When the average student hears about the way
It seems to him one moment there and gone the next;
When the worst student hears about the way
He laughs out loud.
If he did not laugh
It would be unworthy of being the way.
Hence the Chien yen [an old proverb] has it:
The way that is bright seems dull;
The way that leads forward seems to lead backward;
The way that is even seems rough.
The highest virtue is like the valley;
The sheerest whiteness seems sullied;
Ample virtue seems defective;
Vigorous virtue seems indolent;
Plain virtue seems soiled;
The great square has no corners.
The great vessel takes long to complete;
The great note is rarefied in sound;
The great image has no shape.
The way conceals itself in being nameless.
It is the way alone that excels in bestowing and in accomplishing. (D.C. Lau)
Daoist Principles & Practices
Daoist Principles & Practices

An “ecology” of life
Daoist Principles & Practices


An “ecology” of life
Daoist body cultivation: a nexus of interrelated & everchanging (yin-yang) processes
Daoist Principles & Practices



An “ecology” of life
Daoist body cultivation: a nexus of interrelated & everchanging (yin-yang) processes
Disciplines for promoting health and long life
Daoist Principles & Practices




An “ecology” of life
Daoist body cultivation: a nexus of interrelated & everchanging (yin-yang) processes
Disciplines for promoting health and long life
E.g, Taiji quan (Tai Chi) & Qigong (Ch'i-kung)
Daoist Principles & Practices





An “ecology” of life
Daoist body cultivation: a nexus of interrelated & everchanging (yin-yang) processes
Disciplines for promoting health and long life
E.g, Taiji quan (Tai Chi) & Qigong (Ch'i-kung)
Purification of mind & body: to rarify spiritual energies (qi)
Daoist Principles & Practices






An “ecology” of life
Daoist body cultivation: a nexus of interrelated & everchanging (yin-yang) processes
Disciplines for promoting health and long life
E.g, Taiji quan (Tai Chi) & Qigong (Ch'i-kung)
Purification of mind & body: to rarify spiritual energies (qi)
Respect for the natural interdependency of all things: for all things are what they are,
only in relation to each other, and ultimately, in relation to the Great Dao “itself”
Daoist Principles & Practices







An “ecology” of life
Daoist body cultivation: a nexus of interrelated & everchanging (yin-yang) processes
Disciplines for promoting health and long life
E.g, Taiji quan (Tai Chi) & Qigong (Ch'i-kung)
Purification of mind & body: to rarify spiritual energies (qi)
Respect for the natural interdependency of all things: for all things are what they are,
only in relation to each other, and ultimately, in relation to the Great Dao “itself”
Goal to cultivate one’s “self” beyond the gross body and (as celestial immortals) to be
in harmony with the subtle and mysterious transformations of the Dao (the dynamic
unity of being or everchanging cosmic spiritual processes)
Daoist Principles & Practices








An “ecology” of life
Daoist body cultivation: a nexus of interrelated & everchanging (yin-yang) processes
Disciplines for promoting health and long life
E.g, Taiji quan (Tai Chi) & Qigong (Ch'i-kung)
Purification of mind & body: to rarify spiritual energies (qi)
Respect for the natural interdependency of all things: for all things are what they are,
only in relation to each other, and ultimately, in relation to the Great Dao “itself”
Goal to cultivate one’s “self” beyond the gross body and (as celestial immortals) to be
in harmony with the subtle and mysterious transformations of the Dao (the dynamic
unity of being or everchanging cosmic spiritual processes)
Daoists seek not to interfere with the natural rhythms of life; human life is seen as
occurring within the larger patterns of the natural world and the whole cosmos
Daoist Principles & Practices









An “ecology” of life
Daoist body cultivation: a nexus of interrelated & everchanging (yin-yang) processes
Disciplines for promoting health and long life
E.g, Taiji quan (Tai Chi) & Qigong (Ch'i-kung)
Purification of mind & body: to rarify spiritual energies (qi)
Respect for the natural interdependency of all things: for all things are what they are,
only in relation to each other, and ultimately, in relation to the Great Dao “itself”
Goal to cultivate one’s “self” beyond the gross body and (as celestial immortals) to be
in harmony with the subtle and mysterious transformations of the Dao (the dynamic
unity of being or everchanging cosmic spiritual processes)
Daoists seek not to interfere with the natural rhythms of life; human life is seen as
occurring within the larger patterns of the natural world and the whole cosmos
Alchemy & meditation aiming to reach material immortality; to rarify qi
Confucian Religion: The Human Way
Embedded in the Great Way
Confucian Religion: The Human Way
Embedded in the Great Way

Confucianism is a religion, not just an ethic
Confucian Religion: The Human Way
Embedded in the Great Way


Confucianism is a religion, not just an ethic
The human spirit -- ren -- requires the tangible ritual expression of li
Confucian Religion: The Human Way
Embedded in the Great Way



Confucianism is a religion, not just an ethic
The human spirit -- ren -- requires the tangible ritual expression of li
The goal is to promote harmonious human activity co-extensive with
the harmonious way of heaven or ti’an
Confucian Religion: The Human Way
Embedded in the Great Way




Confucianism is a religion, not just an ethic
The human spirit -- ren -- requires the tangible ritual expression of li
The goal is to promote harmonious human activity co-extensive with
the harmonious way of heaven or ti’an
We can make the way great (Wang Pi)
Confucian Religion: The Human Way
Embedded in the Great Way





Confucianism is a religion, not just an ethic
The human spirit -- ren -- requires the tangible ritual expression of li
The goal is to promote harmonious human activity co-extensive with
the harmonious way of heaven or ti’an
We can make the way great (Wang Pi)
The human spirit has a “benevolent” normative nature that has its
roots in the Great Way itself
Confucian Religion: The Human Way
Embedded in the Great Way






Confucianism is a religion, not just an ethic
The human spirit -- ren -- requires the tangible ritual expression of li
The goal is to promote harmonious human activity co-extensive with
the harmonious way of heaven or ti’an
We can make the way great (Wang Pi)
The human spirit has a “benevolent” normative nature that has its
roots in the Great Way itself
The human spirit at its best IS an expression of harmony and unity
Confucian Religion: The Human Way
Embedded in the Great Way







Confucianism is a religion, not just an ethic
The human spirit -- ren -- requires the tangible ritual expression of li
The goal is to promote harmonious human activity co-extensive with
the harmonious way of heaven or ti’an
We can make the way great (Wang Pi)
The human spirit has a “benevolent” normative nature that has its
roots in the Great Way itself
The human spirit at its best IS an expression of harmony and unity
The human way or rendao is a microcosm of the way of heaven
Confucian Religion: The Human Way
Embedded in the Great Way








Confucianism is a religion, not just an ethic
The human spirit -- ren -- requires the tangible ritual expression of li
The goal is to promote harmonious human activity co-extensive with
the harmonious way of heaven or ti’an
We can make the way great (Wang Pi)
The human spirit has a “benevolent” normative nature that has its
roots in the Great Way itself
The human spirit at its best IS an expression of harmony and unity
The human way or rendao is a microcosm of the way of heaven
The “secular” expression of li IS ren: or the “sacred” activation of the
human spirit in goodness and responsibility
Li & Ren: Humanity At Its Best
Li & Ren: Humanity At Its Best

Westerners have a hard time grasping this point because
consciousness or the human “spirit” has been internalized by a
more dualistic metaphysic. Confucius offers us a new and
different way of thinking about ethics and religion by having us
think of consciousness as an objective social and spiritual fact
Li & Ren: Humanity At Its Best


Westerners have a hard time grasping this point because
consciousness or the human “spirit” has been internalized by a
more dualistic metaphysic. Confucius offers us a new and
different way of thinking about ethics and religion by having us
think of consciousness as an objective social and spiritual fact
For Confucius, action and spirit are interdependent: “universal”
human ren requires culturally “diverse” expressions of li
Li & Ren: Humanity At Its Best



Westerners have a hard time grasping this point because
consciousness or the human “spirit” has been internalized by a
more dualistic metaphysic. Confucius offers us a new and
different way of thinking about ethics and religion by having us
think of consciousness as an objective social and spiritual fact
For Confucius, action and spirit are interdependent: “universal”
human ren requires culturally “diverse” expressions of li
Together, li & ren point to different aspects of an act of
“communion”, or harmonious human interaction
The Great Learning
Once things are investigated, knowledge will be completed.
Once knowledge is complete, opinions will be verified.
Once opinions are verified, minds will be rectified.
Once minds are rectified, persons will be cultivated.
Once persons are cultivated, families will be harmonized.
Once families are harmonized, states will be put in order.
Once states are in order, there will be peace all under heaven.
From the emperor to the common people, all must see the cultivation of their
own person as the root of all else.
If roots are in disarray, there will never be healthy branches. (Lydia Garber)
The Analects of Confucius
Someone asked the Master for an explanation of the di
imperial ancestral sacrifice, and he replied: “I don’t have
one. Anyone who did know how to explain it could rule
the empire as easily as having it here.” And he pointed
to the palm of his hand. [representing the magical effect
of ritual in ordering things]. (Ames & Rosemont 3, 11)
The Analects of Confucius
The Master said, High office filled with men of narrow
views, ritual preformed without reverence, the forms of
mourning observed without grief—these are things I
cannot bear to see! (Waley 3, 26)
The expression “sacrifice as though present” is taken to
mean “sacrifice to the spirits as though the spirits are
present.” But the Master said: “If I myself do not
participate in the sacrifice, it is as though I have not
sacrificed at all” (Ames & Rosemont 3, 12)
The Tri-part Dao: The Great Way (of Heaven), The Way of Humanity, & The Way of Earth
The End