Transcript Discourse Analysis - American University in Cairo

Discourse Analysis
Force Migration and Refugee Studies Program
The American University in Cairo
Professor Robert S. Williams
Goals of Tonight’s Talk
1.
To introduce the rules of conversation
2.
To discuss whether or not training in the rules of conversation
would be helpful to you as community interpreters
The Rules of Language
All of us who have learned a second language or studied our own
language are aware that language has rules.
What are some of these rules?
The Rules of Language
Phonological rules – how we put sounds together to make words
(1a) cat + s
(1b) dog +z
Syntactic rules – how we put words together to make sentences
(2a) The big dog quickly ate my breakfast
(2b) *The dog big ate quickly my breakfast
The Rules of Conversation
We also have rules for putting sentences, whether they are written
or spoken, together to make larger units of discourse.
Here, discourse means any spoken or written languagethat has
been produced in order to communicate.
As interpreters, your primary concern is with spoken language –
more specifically with conversation.
In any language, there are rules for conversation that govern such
things as how to interrupt a speaker, how to know when a speaker’s
turn is over, how to change a topic, what topic is appropriate, etc.
Discourse Markers
In addition, speakers give us clues about when they are finished speaking,
about when they are going to change a topic, or when they expect us to
speak or not to speak.
These clues are known as discourse markers.
There are certain kinds of discourse markers, called logical connectors,
that gives us information about how one part of spoken discourse relates
to the next.
It is important to know that all languages have conversational rules and
discourse markers.
However, these rules and discourse markers are different for different
languages. Knowing a language also means knowing the system of
conversational rules and discourse markers.
Rules of Talk
Talk is structured and is based upon principles which govern who may
talk and for how long
Principles of conversation are culturally specific
Rules of talk have their own internal organization, but they also
operate within a social context.
This means that the relative status of conversation participants affects
who gets longer speaker turns, who selects topics, etc
Rules of Talk
Rules of talk determine:
Who talks and when they talk (turn taking)
Who sets the topic of the talk
Who may change the topic and when it may be changed
What kind of language is used in the talk (formal, informal, polite)
The Social Context of Talk
The social structure of your conversations as interpreters, on behalf of
our clients, is usually predetermined.
That is, your client is going before some non-governmental
organization or is visiting a health care or legal organization.
If your client is asking for determination of refugee status or some
other services, then he or she is probably of a lower social status – at
least according to conversational rules – than the person he is talking
to.
This relationship will affect the rules of talk.
The Situational Context of Talk
Another factor that will affect the rules of talk is the situation itself.
That is, the purpose of talk. If you are seeking refugee status, there are
probably procedures in place that will dictate things such as the topic,
who speaks when, who asks and answers questions, what kinds of
questions may be asked, etc.
Talk in the context of seeking medical or legal services – visiting a
doctor or a lawyer, will determine different rules of setting the topic,
who speaks when, etc.
It is very important to be aware of the social and situational contexts of
an interview and how they will affect the rules of talk.
More About the Rules of Talk:
The Topic
As we know, the topic of your talk is set by the context of the talk: interview seeking
status, services, etc.
During the interview, the topic may change. Whether or not your client may initiate
a change in topic depends upon the context of the talk and the nature of the social
relationship between your client and the person to whom he or she is talking.
If the person is an official of some organization, such as the UNHCR, that person
will have a higher social status, in the context of the interview, according to the rules
of talk.
Therefore, that person, and not your client, will be the one to set and change the
topic. That person may give your client the opportunity to change the topic, but
your client should probably ask first.
Breaking these rules can have different outcomes: they may negatively affect the
results of the interview or they may not.
More About the Rules of Talk:
Turn Taking
The social and situational context of the interview will also determine who speaks
first, how long they may speak, and whether or not they have the right to interrupt
a speaker.
Generally, a person of higher social status will speak first, for as long as they need,
and should not be interrupted.
One thing that you should know as an interpreter is how to recognize discourse
markers that indicate when a speaker is finished with his or her turn.
A speaker may signal the end of a turn by asking one person to respond,
either by asking a question, making a request ,or issuing an invitation.
Or, a speaker may stop talking and leave a period of silence. This is
culturally specific. If the speaker is a native-speaker of English, then any
period of silence may be interpreted as giving up a speaking turn.
More About the Rules of Talk:
Backchannel Cues
When one person is speaking to another, the listener has to let the speaker know
that they are listening and want the speaker to continue.
This is done differently in different languages, but most languages use come kind of
speech device to signal the speaker to continue. These devices are know as
backchannel cues.
In English, the listener often says uh hu, ya, right, sure or simple nods the head once
in a while.
If you don’t believe these are necessary for conversation in English, try an
experiment. Next time you are speaking to a native speaker of English, don’t do
anything when it’s their turn to talk and see what happens.
Understanding Talk:
Recognizing Discourse Markers
As an interpreter, it is important to be able to recognize when the speaker is
changing topics, making an important point, and linking one idea to another in
some logical way.
Some English discourse markers used to indicate a change in topic are: the
repetition of a main theme; using words such as OK, alright, now, moving along.
Words that signal the logical relationship between one statement and another are
called conjunctions. We may want to think of them as logical connectors.
I could give you a visa (but, though, however) it will be for just one month
You would need to get the proper forms (then, after that, next) you’ll have
to bring them back to this office
Knowing what all of these are helps you to more quickly understand a speakers
meaning.