Personality Psychology

Trait or Dispositional Theories

Definition – Trait/Disposition

 A trait is any readily-identifiable, stable quality that characterizes an individual from other individuals.

 A trait is a characteristic way in which an individual perceives, feels, believes, or acts.

 Traits serve to summarize, predict, and explain a person’s behavior.

Trait/Dispositional Theories

 Traits present specific ideas about a person’s

disposition which is

the way a person is likely to behave across situations as well as over time.

 Discover/Define main traits.

 Measure traits.

 Organize traits:  Hierarchically or as a continuum.

Discovering Traits

 Lexical Approach  Collecting words and synonyms of traits  Statistical (Empirical) Approach  Factor Analysis  Theoretical Approach  Using theory and past information

Factor Analysis

 Statistical procedure to identify items that group together and reflect a larger factor.

 Selection of traits  Labeling of factors  Number of factors

Gordon Allport

     Born 1897, died 1967 Quiet and reserved Went into Psychology because he followed his brother, Floyd Allport (a Social Psychologist), to Harvard.

Received an undergraduate degree in philosophy and economics from Harvard, and taught in Europe for a year. While in Europe, he had a fortuitous meeting with Sigmund Freud in Vienna, which helped him decide to complete a Ph.D. in psychology.

Allport’s Disposition Theory

 “Father” of trait theory  Used a lexical approach  There is value in surface characteristics – there is more to a person than what is at the “unconscious” level  To discover what someone is like, ask them about themselves. They are the best source of information.

 Traits are both inherited and learned

Allport’s Theory (con’t)

 Suggested internal and external forces that influence an individual’s behavior.



Genotypes

are internal forces relates to how a person retains information and uses it to interact with the external world. 

Phenotypes

are external forces, these relate to the way an individual accepts his surroundings and how others influence their behavior. These forces generate the ways in which we behave and are the groundwork for the creation of individual traits.

Allport’s Theory (con’t)

 Allport suggested that each individual has a unique set of personality traits  He called these personal dispositions  A disposition is “a generalized neuropsychic structure with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent and to initiate and guide consistent forms of adaptive and stylistic behavior.”  Allport divided traits into three categories: Cardinal, Central, and Secondary

Allport’s Theory (con’t)

Cardinal Traits Central Traits Secondary Traits

A trait so dominant a person’s entire life revolves around it.

Most people do not have one.

Qualities that characterize a person’s daily interactions Characteristics that are exhibited in specific situations Most people have 5 to 10 central traits To understand a person, one should look at the

pattern

of central traits Secondary traits are more easily modified than central traits

Allport’s Theory (con’t)

 Allport further divided personal dispositions into  Motivational dispositions, which are strong enough to initiate action and  Stylistic dispositions, which refer to the manner in which an individual behaves and which guide rather than initiate action.

Allport’s Theory (con’t)

 Motives  Opportunistic Functioning: tendency to satisfy biological needs  Propriate Functioning: expressing one’s self  Proprium  Behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm and central in their lives.

 Preferred this term over self or ego because the latter terms could imply an object or thing within a person that controls behavior, whereas proprium suggests the core of one's personhood .

Allport’s Theory (con’t)

Development of the Proprium 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Sense of body – Warmth, pain, etc.

Self-identity – Individual entity Self-esteem – Value, competencies Self-extension – Self-definition, warm and close Self-image – How others see us Rational coping – Dealing with life Propriate striving – Future, purpose, direction

Allport’s Theory (con’t)



Psychological Maturity

 Extensions of self, i.e. involvement.  Warm relating to others  Emotional security and self-acceptance  Realistic perception not defensiveness  Problem-centeredness  Self-objectification  A unifying philosophy of life

Raymond Cattell

 Born 1905, died 1998.

 Born in England, first in his family to go to college. (Degree was in Chemistry.)  Came to America to work with E. L. Thorndike and was invited to Harvard University by Allport.

Raymond Cattell

 Cattell asked the question, "How do we figure out which personality traits are most important in understanding people?"  This is the question asked by many personality psychologists taking the "

Essential trait approach

."

Cattell’s Trait Theory

• • • • Used the Inductive Method Gather a large amount of Data Run an exploratory factor analysis on the data set (a "fishing expedition" which looks for data clusters) This exploratory analysis then gives the researcher information to base future hypothesis on, and the underlying significant factors discovered in the exploratory stage are then used to run a confirmatory analysis.

Cattell’s Theory (con’t)

• Factor analysis reduction of 4,500 trait words (left by Allport) to 16 most basic primary personality dimensions.

• Not as concerned with whether traits were inherited or learned.

Cattell’s Theory (con’t)

1 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Trait Description

Abstractedness Apprehension Dominance Emotional Stability Liveliness Openness to Change Perfectionism Privateness Reasoning Rule Consciousness Self-Reliance Sensitivity Social Boldness Tension Vigilance Warmth

Description of Opposing Extremes

imaginative vs. practical insecure vs. complacent aggressive vs. passive calm vs. high-strung enthusiastic vs. serious liberal vs. traditional compulsive vs. indifferent pretentious vs. unpretentious abstract vs. concrete moralistic vs. free-thinking leader vs. follower sensitive vs. tough-minded uninhibited vs. timid driven vs. easy going suspicious vs. accepting warmhearted vs. aloof

Cattell’s Theory (con’t)

 Three broad sources of data that are used to uncover all the major dimensions of personality.

 These three sources are L-data, Q data, and T-data.

 These three sources of data must be integrated to capture the full complexity of human personality.

Cattell’s Theory (con’t)

L-Data  Gathered Q-Data • Information from one’s life gathered from questionnaires records and interviews T-Data  Information obtained from objective testing situations

Cattell’s Theory (con’t)

 Two types of Traits  Surface traits: Clusters of overt responses that seem to go together.

 Source traits: Building blocks of personality. More stable than surface traits and can only be discovered by factor analysis.

Five-Factor Model

 Many researchers have suggested a Five Factor Model.

 Earliest evidence of the five factor model came from D. W. Fiske in 1949.

 The most commonly used model today is from McCrae and Costa (1987).

McCrae and Costa (1987)

Big Five Factors



Openness to experience

– 

Inventive/curious

vs.

consistent/cautious

Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience. Openness reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a preference for novelty and variety.

McCrae and Costa (1987)

Big Five Factors



Conscientiousness

Efficient/organized

vs.

easy-going/careless

 A tendency to show self-discipline , act dutifully , and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior; organized, and dependable.

McCrae and Costa (1987)

Big Five Factors



Extraversion

– 

Outgoing/energetic

vs.

solitary/reserved

Energy, positive emotions, surgency, assertiveness, sociability and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others, and talkativeness.

McCrae and Costa (1987)

Big Five Factors



Agreeableness

– 

Friendly/compassionate

vs.

cold/unkind

A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.

McCrae and Costa (1987)

Big Five Factors



Neuroticism



Sensitive/nervous

vs.

secure/confident

The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability. Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional stability and impulse control, and is sometimes referred by its low pole – "emotional stability".