INDO-EUROPEANS & ARYANS

• • • Indo-Europeans • Linguistic similarities among Europe, Persia, and India • Indo-European family of languages • Indo-Iranian including Aryans (India), Medes/Persians (SW Asia) • Greek, Balto-Slavic, Germanic, Italic, Celtic • Tocarian, possibly Shang of China • Migrations as the key to explain linguistic similarities Indo-European origins • North of Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Aral Sea; Ukraine, Southern Russia • Common origins established through key vocabulary, traditions, myths Indo-European migrations • To Tarim Basin, fourth millennium B.C.E.

• Shang of China appear to have been Indo-Europeans • To Anatolia (the Hittites), 3000 B.C.E. • By 2nd millennium, established communities in Europe • Around 1500 BCE, domesticated horse amongst Indo-Europeans • Often called the Chariot Peoples; introduced iron and horse technologies

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ARYANS IN INDIA

• • • • • • • • • • • • • The early Aryans Depended heavily on a pastoral economy No writing system, but orally transmitted works called the Vedas Sacred language (Sanskrit) and daily-use language (Prakit) The Vedic Age: 1500 to 500 B.C.E. A boisterous period, conflict with indigenous peoples Called indigenous people dasas - "enemies" or "subject people" Indra, the Aryans' war god and military hero Aryan chiefdoms fought ferociously among themselves Aryan migrations in India First settled in the Punjab, the upper Indus River valley Spread east and south from their base After 1000 B.C.E. settled between Himalayan foothills and Ganges Used iron tools and developed agriculture By 500 B.C.E. migrated as far south as the northern Deccan Lost tribal organizations but established regional kingdoms

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THE CASTE SYSTEM

Caste and varna • Caste: • Hereditary, unchangeable social classes • • Sanskrit word varna, "color," referring to social classes Social distinctions based on racial skin colors Social distinctions in the late Vedic Age • Four main varnas, recognized after 1000 B.C.E. • brahmins (priests) • • • • • • kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats: rulers) vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants) shudras (landless peasants and serfs) Later, the category of the pariah (untouchables) was added Subcaste or jati • Represents more elaborate social classification, developed after 6th c. B.C.E. • • Jati, or subcastes, were determined by occupations The elaborate rules of jati life Caste and social mobility • Caste system was capable of accommodating social change • • Social mobility was very difficult but still possible Foreign peoples could find a place in society of the castes

RISE OF PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY

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Patriarchal, Patrilineal society

• Original Aryan Society: women had rights, some were chiefs • Changes occurred with change to sedentary civilization • Men served as priests, warriors, and tribal chiefs • Family lines based on male descendants (the patriline) • Only males could inherit property • Men learned the Vedas and received formal education

Source: The Lawbook of Manu

• Prepared by an anonymous sage, 1st century B.C.E. • Dealt with moral behavior and social relationships • Advised men to treat women with honor and respect • Subjected women to the control and guidance of men • Women's duties: bear children, maintain the household

Sati as a social custom

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ARYAN RELIGION

• • • The Aryan gods • The war god, Indra • The gods of the sun, sky, moon, fire, health, etc. • The god Varuna - an ethical concern Ritual sacrifices • Importance of ritual sacrifices • Horse sacrifice originally • Priests were specialists of the ritual sacrifices • Ritual sacrifices for rewards from the divine power Spirituality • Many Aryans dissatisfied with ritual sacrifices in late Vedic age • A shift to spiritual contemplation • Thoughtful individuals retreated to forests as hermits • Dravidian notions were coopted • • Transmigration of soul Reincarnation ( nirvana)

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THE RISE OF HINDUISM

• • The Upanishads Works of religious teachings, 800 to 400 B.C.E. The religious forums: dialogues between disciples and sages • • Brahman: the universal soul Brahman was the only genuine reality Highest goal: to escape reincarnation and join with Brahman Atman: The individual self-soul that is part of Brahman • • • • Teachings of the Upanishads Samsara: An individual soul was born many times Dharma: Caste duties Karma: specific incarnations that a soul experienced Moksha: permanent liberation from physical incarnation • • • • Religion and Vedic Society Samsara and karma reinforced social hierarchy Upanishads were also spiritual and intellectual contemplations Taught to observe high ethical standards Respect for all living things, a vegetarian diet