Transcript Thought and Language

Thought and Language
Chapter 8
Peking University
ELIZA
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1960s, MIT
A Conversationalist: Demonstrating that it
recognizes works and know what rules to
use to maintain a dialogue.
What distinguishes ELIZA from human?
• Relation between thought and language?
• In what ways peoples get to learn language?
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Thought
Thinking, means representing
things mentally and operating on
these representations.
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Outline
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Units of Thought: Images, Concepts, and
Propositions
Reasoning, Problem Solving, and Decision
Making
Language
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1. Units of Thought: Images,
Concepts, and Propositions
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Mental Images & Mental Models
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Concepts and Categories
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Propositions
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1.1 Mental Images and Mental
Models
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Mental Image
A visual representation of a stimulus.
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Mental Models
Representations of systems that enable people to
describe, explain, and predict the way things
work.
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1.2 Concepts and Categories
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Concepts
• Mental representation of a class of objects,
ideas, or events that share common properties.
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Categorization
• The process of grouping objects considered
equivalent and excluding those that are not.
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Visualized & more than visual image(car)
Well-defined & Fuzzy Concepts(good)
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动物
肺来呼吸
有翼飞行
卵生
温血
脊椎动物
鸟类
鸟
无脊椎动物
哺乳类
家禽
红嘴鸥
爬行类
不会飞
肺、温血
卵生
海鸟，红嘴，
等。
Concepts and its Organization
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Set Theory
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Set of Defining(core) Features
Feature Integration Model
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Prototypes 原型
Bird----robin & penguin
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概念与归类
样例
定义特征
猎狗
四足、有尾动物
吠声、气喘、淌口水
狗
德国牧羊犬
通常受驯养、友好
长毛卷耳狗
能捉跳蚤
玩具狮子狗
水果样例的典型性
橘子
苹果
香蕉
桃子
杏子
葡萄
西瓜
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6.5
9
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1.07
1.08
1.15
1.17
1.36
1.38
2.39
概念的形成
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Hypothesis-testing Theory
• 整体策略
• 部分策略
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同时性扫描
连续性扫描
保守性聚焦
博弈性聚焦
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1.3 Propositions
The smallest units of meaning that can
stand alone as an assertion and be
judged true or false.
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2. Reasoning, Problem Solving,
and Decision Making
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Reasoning
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Problem Solving
Decision Making
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Factors That Interfere with Rational Thinking
 Parallel Distributed Processing
 Using Computers to Simulate Thought
 A Different Perspective: psychodynamic/behavioral
view
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2.1 Reasoning
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Reasoning
• the process by which people generate and
evaluate logical arguments
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Inductive Reasoning----observation
• reasoning from specific observations to
generate propositions that are probably true.
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Deductive Reasoning----idea
• Drawing conclusions from assumptions or
premises.
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三段论(Syllogism)
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All A(s) are B
 C is an A
 C is a B
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三段论推理
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未婚者都不戴结婚戒指。
小李未戴结婚戒指。
所以，小李未婚。
卡片一面是数字，一面是字母。
如果卡片一面是字母A，另一面就是数字3。
要验证第二个命题，必须翻什么卡片？
A
B
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2
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2.2 Problem Solving
 The
process of transforming one
situation into another that meets a
goal.
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2.2.1 The Problem-solving Process
The problem space
Initial
State
Operators
No problem
Goal
State
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2.2.2 Three Components
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Initial state
• Existing of problem
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Operators
• mental and behavioral processes aimed at
transforming the initial state until it eventually
approximates the goal state.
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Goal state
• Problem is solved
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2.2.3 Steps in Problem Solving
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Holland et al.(1986): four-step process
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Differences between the two states
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Identify and select possible operators
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Apply the operators (Subgoals)
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Continue using operators until differences are
eliminated
Well or Ill-defined problem
• Science/ Social life(信息和标准)
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Problem-Solving Strategies
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Algorithms
• Systematic problem-solving procedures that
inevitably produce a solution.
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Heuristics
• Cognitive shortcuts or Rules of Thumb
• Hypothesis testing
• Experience/ Expectation/ Motivation/ Personality
• 如何解决：半夜时分隔壁宿舍太闹/过得不开心
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2.3 Decision Making
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Decision making
• The process by which an individual weighs the pros
and cons of different alternatives in order to make a
choice.
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Information-processing models
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Utility / Probability
Utility Value
Weighted Utility Value
Expected Utility
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属性
高收入
有挑战性
有发展机会
有住房
工作环境
求职成功率
期望效用
重
要
性
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4
3
2
1
教授
效用
加权效用
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10
8
8
10
25
40
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16
10
115
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11.50
工商界
效用
加权效用
10
9
8
2
6
50
36
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4
6
120
.90
108
公务员
效用
加权效用
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6
8
10
9
35
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24
20
9
112
.50
56.0
Risk Strategies (nonstatistical risk estimate)
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Which is your choice?
• 85% chance to win $100
• Sure gain of $80
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Which is your choice?
• 85% chance to lose $100
• Sure loss of $80
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Risk-averse/Risk-seeking strategy
Optimistic bias(when estimate own risks)
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2.4 Factors That Interfere with
Rational Thinking
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Representativeness & Availability Heuristic
• Deciding whether an object or incident belongs
in a particular class.
• Judging the likelihood of something happening
on the basis of its availability in memory.
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Confirmation Bias
• 2,4,6,
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Mental Set
Functional Fixedness
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2.5 Parallel Distributed
Processing
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Ruelhart et al., 1986:
PDP model of cognition
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Two propositions of PDP model
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Parallel
• Letter-recognition/ word-recognition
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Distributed
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2.6 Using Computers to
Stimulate Thought
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Artificial Intelligence
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GPS, General Problem Solver
ELIZA
Expert Systems
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2.7 A Different Perspective: Psychodynamic
and Behavioral View of Decision Making
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Rational decision maker of informationprocessing theory.
Decisions involve motivation and emotion,
which can be too many and irrational and
not be represented in conscious awareness.
• Syllogism about Chairman Mao
• Wilson & Schooler(1991): 草莓酱
• Wilson et al.(1993)：艺术画
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Assignment No.4
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人类思维过程容易出现失误。为什么？
请展开思路，从多个角度加以说明。
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3. Language
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The system of symbols, sounds, meanings,
and rules for their combination that
constitutes the primary mode of
communication among humans.
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Main topics on language
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Language and Thought
Transforming Sounds and Symbols into
Meaning
From Babbling to Bantering
Nonverbal Communication
Is Language Distinct to Humans?
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3.1 Language and Thought
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Hununoo (Philippines): 92 names for rice
Gender/time phrase in English
B. Whorf (1956):Whorfian Hypothesis
Language shapes thought
 Thought shapes language
• Rosch(1973): Dani people for color(only two)
• The United States/These United States
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3.2 Transforming Sounds and
Symbols into Meaning
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Elements of Language
phoneme, morpheme, sentence(phrase), grammar
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Slips of the Tongue: Misplacing the
Elements of Language(PDP)
Surface and Deep Structure
Transformational Grammar
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LAD, Language Acquisition Device
Context and Meaning
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3.3 From Babbling to Bantering
Babbling, One word, Two word,
Telegraphic Speech
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Influences on Language Development
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genetic predisposition(Eimas, 1985)
environmental influence
• Reinforcement(强化不到位、类似规律、造句)
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Critical Period for Language Development?
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3.4 Nonverbal Communication
Intonation (tone of voice)
Body language *
Gestures
Physical distance
Auditory signals(nonverbal vocalizations)
Facial expressions
Touch or smell
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Is Language Distinct to Humans?
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Premack(1972):
• A chimpanzee, Sarah, learned a vocabulary of
130 plastic symbols.
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4. Some Concluding Thoughts
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