Transcript Getting Thoughts On Paper: Writing Difficulties, Their

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Web: kaufmanpsychological.org
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From Brain to Pen to
Paper . . .
The Neuropsychology of Writing
& Best Practice Instructional
Recommendations
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To become competent
writers, students must:
1. Become proficient in spelling, punctuation, and grammar;
2. They must learn to write in various styles and formats
(depending on the particular situation/audience);
3. They must build strong vocabularies and deep reservoirs of
background knowledge;
4. They must learn to cope with writer’s block and develop the
stamina needed to get through long and difficult
assignments (writers’ resiliency);
5. They must learn strategies (such as preparing outlines,
soliciting feedback, and writing/revising multiple drafts that
help them to organize their writing projects and complete
them successfully.
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The Five Stages of the Writing
Process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Prewriting (brainstorming, planning,
sequencing/organizing, etc.)
Drafting (writing the initial draft)
Revising (content-oriented
revision/correction)
Editing (proofreading and mechanical
revision/correction)
Publishing (preparation of the final draft in
its final form)
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Writing Ability & the Neurodevelopmental Functions:
Spatial-Motor
Comprehending the spatial relationships
involved in letter/word production;
coordinating small muscles of
the fingers needed to form letters
Attention
Memory
Maintaining concentration &
self-monitor work quality
Fluid recall of letters,
rules, and ideas;
simultaneous holding of
all of this in working
memory
Executive Functioning
Generating ideas & taking a
stepwise approach to planning,
organizing, and revising work
WRITING
Language Production
Using words and constructing
sentences correctly
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Attention
Controls
Neuromotor
Functions
Executive Skills
Language
Memory
(LTM)
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Breakdowns in one or more of
these processes can lead to . .
Dysgraphia: A disorder of written expression
– there are ‘language-based’ and ‘nonlanguage-based’ types of dysgraphia (4 –
17% of the population, Hooper et al., 1994)
A ‘shadow syndrome’ of a writing
disorder: ‘Sub-clinical‘ elements of a
writing disorder that make the writing
process arduous/tedious (??% of the
population – certainly LOTS of kids . .)
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DA’ BRAIN: Its two hemispheres
and four lobes
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Neuropsychology of Writing II
Language,
Visual-Motor Functions,
and Writing
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Language
The Voice of the Writing Process
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Language-based writing
problems can stem from . . .
1.
2.
3.
Deficits at the word formation level
(difficulties with processing phonemes,
graphemes, morphemes)
Deficits at the sentence formation level
(difficulties with word/phrase retrieval, syntax,
or sequential elaboration)
Deficits at the paragraph/essay formation
level (difficulties comprehending/recalling the
manner in which sentences combine into
paragraphs and beyond)
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Left Hemisphere Language Centers
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Language-Based Dysgraphias
“It is a damn poor mind
that can only think of one
way to spell a word .”
-- Andrew Jackson
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Essential (and often
unacknowledged) literacy
acquisition facts


Learning to speak and understand others’
oral language is a natural process
(basically, we’re born to do it . .)
Learning to read and write is NOT a
natural process!
Why???
Here’s why . .
Literacy requires the literal
REWIRING of brain circuits.
That is, in order to read (and
write), we must modify brain
regions developed over the
course of millions of years of
evolution to serve oral
language and object
recognition so that they can
function in the service of
literacy.
Let’s look again at the brain
(source: Jacob L. Driesen, Ph.D.)
Expressive
Language
Letter-Sound
Receptive
Association
Language
Letter/
Object
Word
Namin
ID
g
Bottom line
Some brains have a far harder time than
most accomplishing the rewiring.
We call children with such brains,
‘dyslexic.’
The
Biggest Distinction . .
Developmental Dyslexia
Vs.
Acquired Dyslexia
AKA: Alexia or word blindness
Biggest Distinction within
Developmental Dyslexia
Auditory/Phonological Visual/Orthographic
Vs.
Four Types of Developmental
Reading Disorders (Feifer, 2011)
1. Dysphonetic Dyslexia (difficulties processing the component
sounds of speech and with linking letters to sounds – inhibits the
‘sounding out’ of words)
2. Orthographic Dyslexia (difficulties recalling/recognizing the
visual features of words; this is a particular problem with irregular
words like ‘enough’ and ‘yacht’ and ‘the’)
3. Mixed Dyslexia (Impaired phonological and orthographic
processing)
4. Comprehension Deficits (no obvious word
level/mechanical reading deficits, but comprehension is
impaired)
Subtypes of Language-Based
Dysgraphias
1.
Phonological Dysgraphia
2.
Surface (or “Orthographic”)
Dysgraphia (marked difficulty with storing
(spelling
deficits associated with phonological processing
deficits - students with this problem struggle
with spelling by sound)
and/or retrieving the idiosyncratic appearance of
words)
3.
Mixed Dysgraphia (manifests itself in a
4.
Semantic/Syntactic Dysgraphia
combination of phonological spelling errors and
orthographic errors depicting faulty sequential
arrangement of letters)
(the inability to master the rules for grammar
that dictate precisely how words/phrases can be
combined – writing reflects a breakdown of
linguistic rules)
Phonological Dyslexia
Difficulties processing
the component sounds
of speech and with
linking letters to sounds
– inhibits the ‘sounding
out’ of words)
AKA: Dysphonetic Dyslexia
Phonological vs. Phonemic
Awareness
Phonologic
al
Awareness:
Syllables,
Onsets &
Rimes
Phonemic
Awareness:
Grasping
language at
the phonemic
level.
Phonics (AKA: The Alphabetic
Principle)
Key neuroanatomical structures
in the decoding/encoding process

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We’re talking primarily about the left brain (men
more than women)
Broca’s Area (brain center located in the inferior
frontal gyrus associated primarily with expressive
language)
Wernicke’s Area (brain center located in the parietotemporal region associated with word analysis and
receptive language)
Occipito-temporal convergence (brain center
associated with the storage and recognition/recall of
word forms – how they look, sound, and what they
mean)
Broca’s Area
Superior
temporal cortex
(expressive language
center – where
pronunciation occurs)
Exec.
control
Pre-frontal
cortex
(primary
center of
executive
control and
metacognition)
(where letters and
sounds of language
are linked)
Letter/sound
correspondenc
e
Pronun
-ciation
Vocabular
y&
meaning
Medial temporal
cortex
(a key ‘meaning’
center of auditory
processing)
Letter
/word
ID
Ventral occipitotemporal region
(the brain’s
‘letterbox’)
Brain Systems for Reading
(adapted from Overcoming Dyslexia, S. Shaywitz, 2003
Orthographic
Knowledge/Competency
Essential for ‘sight word’
recognition and, of
course, spelling.
Orthographic Dyslexia
AKA: Surface or ‘dyseidetic’ dyslexia
Characteristics:
1. Good grasp of phonology and
phonics
2. Difficulty recalling or grasping
the visual elements and visual
gestalt of words
We’re talking here about a
visual memory/visual
integration deficit
Why Orthographic Dyslexia is so
common in English speaking
countries:
English has DEEP
(complex)
orthography!!
That is, there is not
a 1:1
correspondence
between all or our
phonemes and all of
our graphemes.
Subtypes of Language-Based
Dysgraphias
1.

Phonological Dysgraphia (spelling
deficits associated with phonological
processing deficits - students with this
problem struggle with spelling by sound)
Kids with phonological dysgraphia struggle,
in a nutshell, with phonological processing,
and display error patterns reflecting limited
comprehension of sound/symbol
relationships.
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Another language-based
dysgraphia
2. Surface (or “Orthographic”)
Dysgraphia (marked difficulty with storing
and/or retrieving the idiosyncratic
appearance of words)
In other words, these kids have little
difficulty spelling by sound, but struggle with
phonetically irregular words containing
alternative spelling patterns.
“Yacht” spelled as “yat” and “enough” spelled as “enuff”
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Test of Orthographic
Competence
Assesses aspects of the English
writing system that are integral to
proficient reading and writing.
These aspects include letters,
spelling, punctuation,
abbreviations, and special
symbols.
Expressive Language
Difficulties & Writing

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
Conversational language
is not the same as
academic (writing)
language
Word retrieval difficulties
sink both oral expression
and written expression
Limited elaboration ability
is often a prime suspect
in written language that is
often ‘Joe Friday’ in
orientation.
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A failure to communicate . . .


Word retrieval difficulties
sound like, “Um,” “ah,”
pauses, etc (lots of “stall”
words), as well as
“circumlocution”
(substituting a definition for
a word)
Kids with elaboration
difficulties sound like Joe
Friday (just the facts). Very
little illustrative language
and connective phrases.
Often use summary words
such as “stuff” and “things”
– writing tends to be sparse.
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Kids with elaboration difficulties:
Short-answer specialists
Kaufman: Do you like to write?
Kid: Nope.
Kaufman: Why not? What do you dislike about
it?
Kid: I dunno . . . Boring
Kaufman: Do you find all types of writing
boring? Even story writing?
Kid: I guess.
Kaufman: Are there other things you dislike
about writing?
Kid: It’s hard.
Kaufman: What’s hard about it?
Kid: I dunno . . . Saying stuff.
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Activity 3
A Working Memory Brain Teaser!
I am a small parasite. Add
one letter and I am a thin
piece of wood. Change one
letter and I am a vertical
heap. Change another letter
and I am a roughly built hut.
Change one final letter and I
am a large fish. What was I
and what did I become?
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Activity 5
Elaboration difficulties are common
among children (particularly boys).
Take a moment to consider ways
that you might encourage ‘nonelaborative’ kids to become at least
somewhat more verbose and
productive on paper.
Share your thoughts with someone
seated by you.
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And then syntax problems
there are . . . (huh?)



Word order is often confused
Words are placed next to each other in ways
that aren’t appropriate in English (“I car
washed with Dad”).
Sentences are generally poorly formed, and
are hard to comprehend (sometimes even by
the writer . . .)
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When syntax goes bad:
An actual newspaper quote . .

No one was
injured in the
blast, which
was attributed
to a buildup of
gas by one
town official.
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Key question to ask when
working a kid whose writing
syntax (word order on paper)
is problematic . . .
Is his/her spoken syntax
similarly jumbled or is it
much better?
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If a child’s written syntax . . .
Matches his oral
syntax:
Does not match his
oral syntax:
The written syntax
problems are likely
related to an
expressive language
deficit.
The written syntax
problems are likely
related to an
attention or working
memory deficit.
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Wrestling with pen and paper
Neuromotor Functions
and the Writing Process
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Key Point to Remember . . .
Fine-Motor Functioning = Grapho-Motor Functioning
Many kids with abominable
handwriting draw well and have
no difficulties manipulating
small objects.
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Handwriting Development:
How it’s supposed to work
1.
2.
3.
4.
Luria (1973): Said that kids learn
to make letters by memorizing the
parts of each letter through an
interaction between the muscles,
eyes, and kinesthetic feedback.
With continued practice, the letter
formation process becomes more
automatic – a single movement
(or a “kinesthetic melody”).
Kids get faster/more accurate as
they get older, but not a regular
intervals.
Most kids have a close
approximation of their adult
handwriting by Grade 6
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Three common types of
grapho-motor dysfunction
(Mel Levine, Educational Care, pp. 212-213)
1.
Motor memory dysfunctions
2.
Grapho-motor production deficits
3.
Motor Feedback Problems
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Motor Memory Dysfunction

Defined: Difficulty integrating memory input with
grapho-motor output (Levine: These kids lack the
procedural memory needed to know how to inscribe
letters dependably on demand).



Often unable to recall (fluidly enough!) the sequences of
muscle movements needed to form specific letters
(Can’t recall the “kinetic melodies” of letters).
The writing of these kids tends to be slow, labored, with
letter sizes varying widely and spacing being
inconsistent.
Kids with this issue prefer manuscript (printing) to
cursive!!
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Grapho-Motor Production Deficits





Defined: Difficulty transmitting/executing specific muscle
assignments to the finger while writing
Levine: These kids show poor grapho-motor coordination
(they lack grapho-motor fluidity), use heavy pressure, and
write slowly
There’s a poor balance often between the muscles balancing
the pencil and those moving it
These kids generally use ‘thumb over’ pencil grips and/or
elongated fingers
These kids often show a co-morbid speech/language
(articulation) impairments; Levine: They endure the same
kind of trouble assigning mouth movements in speech as
they do assignment finger movements in writing.
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Motor Feedback Problems

Defined: Difficulties getting (or comprehending)
feedback from the fingers with regard to the pencil’s
exact location as letters are being formed

Also known as “finger agnosia”

Levine: Affected students may compensate by

keeping their eyes very close to the page in attempt
to visual monitor the pencil point, since their fingers
are failing to report back.
Kids with this condition usually rely on their larger
muscles (wrist and arm) to write, as they have more
of a sense as to what these muscles are up to
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Levine’s Model of Grapho-Motor Dysfunction
(The Myth of Laziness, p. 172)
Motor Memory:
Trouble activating the right
motion sequences
Implementation:
Trouble assigning
muscles to jobs
MOTOR FAILURE
DURING WRITING
Previsualization:
Trouble picturing the letters
Spatial Awareness:
Trouble comprehending
the spatial relationships
involved in letter/word
construction
(Kaufman)
Localization:
Trouble tracking finger
movements
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A quick look at grips: The
good, the bad, and the ugly



Most good grips are ‘dynamic
tripods’ in which the pencil
rests on the third (middle)
finger and is controlled by the
thumb and index finger
Many problematic grips are
‘quadruped’ in nature, with the
pencil resting on the fourth
(‘ring’) finger and the thumb
extended and wrapped over the
index and middle fingers
“Thumb-wrap” grips and
“hammer grips” essentially
prevent the fingers from
controlling the pencil
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Lefties and handwriting: A
vast right hand conspiracy . . .



We’re automatically in a onedown position because we
push the pencil/pen point
into the paper (friction!)
Greater friction/muscle
tension can lead to more
thumb-wrap grips
Unless we’re taught to orient
the paper to the right, we
smear and/or hook like
there’s no tomorrow
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Student Profiling to Inform Instruction and Learning
Plan
Student’s Name: _______________
Attention/EF Language
Memory
Neuromotor
Emotional
Neuro
Profile
Spelling/Usage
Mechanics/Rules
Sentence Constr. Paragraph/Essay Constr.
Academic
Profile
Strategies
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End of morning session . .
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Next Time:
STRATEGIES
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IMPLICATIONS FOR
INSTRUCTION
Best Practice Recommendations
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Assessment of Writing
Helpful Perspectives . .
•Error patterns matter as much as
(if not more than) standard scores
•‘Management by Profile’ (Mel
Levine
•‘Kids succeed if they can’ (Ross
Greene)
Purpose of assessment: To develop
functional hypotheses about what,
specifically, is getting in the way. 58
Helpful Assessment Tools
Cognitive



WISC-IV
(verbal,
visual/spatial, working memory,
processing speed)
Bender-2 & RCFT
(visualmotor integration and spatial
organization skills)
WCST, CTMT, NEPY,
BRIEF (attention/executive
Academic




functioning)

CMS or WRAML (verbal
vs. visual memory)

Classroom writing
samples (nothing better)
TOWL-3
WIAT-II Spelling and
Written Expression
subtests
KTEA-2 Spelling and
Written Expression
subtests
C-TOPP/PAT
(phonological processing)59
Meet Josh . .
Age: 9
Grade: 4
Dx: History of ‘mild ADHD’)
Problem: “Hates to write, produces little, and often
shuts down or goes off-task when asked to write”
WISC-IV: FSIQ 103, VCI 114, PRI 102, WMI 82,
PSI 88
Bender: Average copy and recall phase scores
(slow and scattered approach)
RCFT: Below average copy phase characterized
by slow, disorganized approach
Classroom writing samples: Strong
‘voice,’ but writing is sparse, sloppy,
poorly organized (‘one random
thought after another’), & capitalization
& punctuation are erratic.
WIAT-II: Spelling is average in isolation,
with set shifting, divided attention, visual and
auditory attention, organization, impulse control,
and self-monitoring
but significantly worse in narrative
writing; sentence combination skills are
intact, although punctuation is erratic;
writing prompt performance is
consistent with classroom samples
BASC-2 & Conners’: Clinically significant levels
TOWL-3: Intact vocabulary and spelling;
WCST/CTMT/NEPY/BRIEF: Significant difficulties
of attention problems and hyperactivity; social
problems and anxiety subscales moderately
elevated
no obvious language weaknesses; story
writing sample is vague, brief, and only
somewhat related to picture prompt
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Sped
eligibility
and
progress
monitoring
Small group
progress
monitoring
Universal
benchmarking
CBM data
informs the
eval process
Curriculum-Based Measurement
Defined: CBM refers to the systematic
measurement of students’ academic achievement,
using brief, highly content valid (‘curriculumbased’) measures administered at regular intervals
(e.g., 3x per year) as a benchmarking process or
more frequently (i.e., weekly) to gauge rates of
response to specific interventions.
What is it???
AIMSweb is a benchmark and progress monitoring
system based on direct, frequent and continuous
student assessment. The results are reported to
students, parents, teachers and administrators via
a web-based data management and reporting
system to determine response to intervention.
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Framing Your Thoughts, provides systematic and
sequential instruction for written expression.
Instruction moves from barebone sentences
through five kinds of paragraph development.
Framing Your Thoughts is a research-based
written expression instruction for K-12 students
in general education (Tier I) and intervention
(Tier II) classrooms. In Carroll County Public
Schools Framing Your Thoughts has also been
used effectively with students that have special
education needs (Tier III).
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Developing the brain’s phonemic and phonics skill
Pronunciation
Broca’s Area
(expressive language
center – where
pronunciation occurs)
Letter/sound
correspondenc
e
Superior
temporal cortex
(where letters and
sounds of language
are linked)
Research-Based Spelling Instruction
Sitton Spelling & Word Skills


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Utilizes 1200 Core Words selected for their frequency of
use in writing
Targets the building of children’s knowledge of English
orthographic patterns
Heavily teacher-directed and explicit, with emphasis given
to lots of guided practice and spiraled presentation of
orthographic patterns via systematic word study methods.
“What students store in memory about specific words’ spellings
is regulated in part by what they know about the general system.
Learners who lack the knowledge are left with rote memorization
which takes longer and is more easily forgotten” (Ehri, p. 308, 1992).
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Helping Dyslexic/Dysgraphic
Children
Shaywitz: Since the neural
systems responsible for
transforming print into
language may not be as
responsive as in other
children, the instruction
for dyslexic kids must be
relentless and amplified in
every way possible so that
it penetrates and takes
hold. (Overcoming
Dyslexia, p. 256)
Orton-Gillingham-inspired Reading
Programs for Dyslexic Students
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Direct Instruction (DI) Reading
Programs for Dyslexic Students
Technology-Centered Programs for
Dyslexic Students
Dr. Marilyn Jager Adams
Dr. Ted Hasselbring
Visualization-Centered Programs for
Dyslexic Students
Research-Based Spelling Instruction
Cover – Copy - Compare
(For spelling problems) The student is instructed to cover
the correct model on the left side of the page with an
index card and to spell the word in the space on the right
of the sheet. The student then uncovers the correct
answer on the left to check his or her work.
(For vocabulary items) The student is instructed to cover
the correct model on the left side of the page with an
index card and to write both the word and its definition in
the space on the right side of the sheet. The student then
uncovers the correct model on the left to check his or her
work.
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Ways to help language impaired
kids: Levine’s main emphases:





Figure out as early as
possible if a kid’s writing
problems relate to language
Demystify the specific
problems
Get all kids talking (a lot!),
and provide guided feedback
Insist all kids always talk in
full sentences
Actively teach/module
vocabulary, syntax, and
elaboration
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More Levine Strategies



Provide lots of opportunities to practice speaking
(“Tell me more” “How else could you say that?”)
Have kids practice oral elaboration (have kids
describe or explain pictures, photos, etc.)
Frame questions in such a way that kids can’t give
one-word answers (instead of, “What is your
favorite TV show,” ask kids, “What do you like
best about your favorite TV show?”)
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A few Kaufman strategies
Sentence Formation


Have kids practice the
sequence of words (fun
with syntax!)
Have children practice
creating sentences (silly
and otherwise),
incorporating a few key
words (“Create a
sentence that includes
the words, clown,
puddle, and banana”)
Elaboration



Draw kids’ attention to
elaborative phrases and
sentences used by other
students
Teach specific idioms
and give examples of
how they can be used
Have kids practice
adding details to their
writing (have them go
way overboard as an
exercise)
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A Core Recommendation: Build
Writing Fluency with Power Writing


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A daily fluency building technique
Consists of brief timed writing events
In each one-minute interval, students
are told to write as much as they can
about a specified topic
The one-minute intervals are
performed up to 3 times in a row
Usually kids are told to include one or
more key words in their writing
Kids graph their progress (accuracy
and length)
Fisher & Frey, 2007
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Step by Step: Generative
Writing
1. Think of a word that begins
with ‘b’ and write that word
down.
2. Use that word in a sentence.
3. Use that sentence as the first
sentence in a paragraph of at
least three sentences.
Fisher & Frey, 2007
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Take 2: More Generative
Writing
1. Use the word ‘body’ in the second position in a
sentence. (generative sentence)
2. Use the word ‘heart’ in a sentence of at least
seven words. (sentence limiting)
3. Use the word lungs in a sentence with a
prepositional phrase. (sentence pattern)
Fisher & Frey, 2007
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Syntax Surgery
Method:
1. Write a proper sentence on a strip of paper.
2. Cut apart the words
3. Reassemble the sentence into correct order
Fisher & Frey, 2007
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How many correct sentences can
you create from these words?
THE
TRAIN RIDE
WILL
MONKEY TO
BIKE
MARY
THE
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I am a camera: The ‘videocam
in the mind’ technique
Students should:
1. Pick a favorite activity or memory.
2. Close their eyes and ‘see’ the activity.
3. Write one or two word ‘bullet point’ descriptions of what
they see, hear, smell, and/or taste (closing their eyes
and viewing the internal image as often as necessary)
4. Write one or two word ‘bullet point’ descriptions of
favorite parts/elements.
5. Write each bullet point into a complete sentence.
6. Combine the sentences into one or two cohesive
paragraphs.
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Vocabulary Grab Bag
1. Choose one word from the left grab bag and one from
the right.
2. Write a sentence that correctly combines the two
words (so they make sense together), completing the
sentence with words of your own.
3. Repeat the exercise five times using different words
from the grab bag for each sentence.
4. Combine your five sentences (you pick the order) into
a cohesive paragraph.
Hanson, 2002
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Handwriting Instruction: What
Research Says Really Works
(Troia & Graham, 2003; Troia, 2006)
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Pencil grip, letter/word formation, and paper orientation
need to be explicitly modeled, practice, and reviewed
Facilitative supports such as dotted lines and arrows
(particularly for kids with visual-spatial deficits)
Kids should be taught to monitor and evaluate the
quality of their handwriting
Handwriting fluency can be achieved only via high levels
of guided practice and review (speed drills help)
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Kaufman’s Two Cents: All kids with
significant grapho-motor difficulties should
have explicit plans that outline . . .
The types of assignments
for which:



they will write with
their hands (i.e., shortanswer work and
worksheets
they will dictate or give
oral presentations
they will access
keyboard devices
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Writing and Comprehension
Writing is an act of discovering
what we think and understand.
Writing develops in struggling readers
the heightened level of interaction –
talking to the text and author – that
bonds learners to books.
Laura Robb, 2008
Differentiating Reading Instruction:
How to Meet the Needs of All Students
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Three Core Types of Reading
Response Journal Entries (Robb, 2008)



Writing to build comprehension while reading
(occurs during teacher read alouds – students
reflect on what the author wants them to
think/know)
Writing that reflects an understanding to text
structure (i.e., character development and
setting, type/structure of nonfiction, etc.)
Writing that shows students application of
teacher-modeled comprehension strategies
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Just Words vs Wilson Reading
System
Just Words
for students with deficits in decoding/encoding with word attack scores
between the 15th and 50th percentile rank.
Tier II (usually general education students although some special education
students may be appropriate for Just Words).
Can be delivered in groups up to 15 students.
Grades 4-adult
Wilson Reading System
deficits in decoding/encoding with word attack scores 15th percentile or
below.Tier III (usally identified with an IEP)
Small homogenous groups no larger than 6 students.
Grades 2-12
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Framing Your Thoughts, provides systematic and
sequential instruction for written expression.
Instruction moves from bare bone sentences through
five kinds of paragraph development. Framing Your
Thoughts is a research-based written expression
instruction for K-12 students in general education
(Tier I) and intervention (Tier II) classrooms.
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Individualized Writing Plans
Should explicitly specify the assignments situations in which the child will:

Write with his/her hand (e.g., shortanswer and worksheet tasks);

Using keyboard and other tech devices

Use dictation/scribing approaches
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A great web-based story
development program
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A great I-Pad based story
development application
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Silly Story Starters - Creative
Writing for Kids
By daCapo Software
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What killer
writing apps
have you
come across?
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Activity 6: Case
Studies
‘Jason’
Lorraine
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End of day . .
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