Transcript Sustainable Approaches to Sustainable Development

Chapter 22
Sustainable Approaches
Industrial Ecology and Pollution Prevention
© 2007 Thomson Learning/South-Western
Thomas and Callan, Environmental Economics
Sustainable Approaches
How to achieve sustainable development?
 Industrial Ecology: a systems approach
 Pollution Prevention (P2): a front-end strategy
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Industrial Ecology
Overview
 Industrial ecology refers to a multidisciplinary, systems
approach to the flow of energy and materials between
production and the environment
 Main objectives
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To promote ways to use recycled waste from one production
process as inputs in another process
To optimize material flows (i.e., achieve an efficient use of
materials and energy in production)
 Some argue that industrial ecology is the means by
which a society promotes sustainable development
 Since flow of materials is integral to industrial ecology,
the materials balance model should be revisited
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Materials Balance Model Revisited
At issue is whether the flow of materials from nature through the economy
is linear, (i.e., operating in only one direction), and open OR cyclical and closed
Source: Adapted from Kneese, Ayres, and D'Arge (1970).
A Linear (or Open) Materials Flow
This “cradle-to-grave” open flow assumes materials run in ONE direction,
entering as resources and leaving as wastes or residuals. Policy focus would
have to be aimed at abating contaminants ONLY at the end of the flow.
Source: U.S. Congress, OTA (October 1992), as cited in Gibbons (September/October 1992), p. 31.
Linear Flow
 Policy based on a linear flow assumption does not fully
address the long-run implications of pollution, i.e.,…
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Nature’s capacity to convert matter to energy is limited, so this
limited conversion affects future generations
Relying on abatement after the fact uses up resources that
eventually are added to the residual (waste) flow
Command-and-control policy based on this approach generally
runs counter to economic growth, which causes intertemporal
trade offs from one generation to another
 Solution should consider a cyclical flow approach
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Cyclical (or Closed) Materials Flow
 A cyclical flow assumes that…
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productive activity can be altered throughout the cycle to
reduce environmental effects
 e.g., product design, manufacturing processes, energy use
residuals (i.e., wastes or pollution) can be brought back into
useful production
 Implies that policy can be aimed anywhere in the cycle
of production and consumption rather than only at
“end-of-pipe”
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Closed System of Materials Flow
A “cradle-to-cradle” flow that assumes materials run in a circular pattern in a closed system
that allows residuals (or wastes) to be brought back into the production process.
Source: U.S. Congress, OTA (October 1992), as cited in Gibbons (September/October 1992), p. 31.
Using a Cyclical Flow in Practice
 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
 Industrial Ecosystems
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Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
 Used to examine the environmental impact of a product
or process at all stages from resource use to disposal
 Comprises 4 components
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Goal definition and scoping: describes the product and
environmental effects to be assessed
Inventory analysis: analyzes resource usage and
environmental releases
Impact analysis: determines human & environmental effects
Interpretation: evaluates results and selects product/process
 Addressed by ISO 14000 International Standards
 Voluntary standards in environmental management aimed at
giving countries a common approach to environmental issues
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Industrial Ecosystems
A Real-World Closed System
 Wastes from one production process are used
as inputs in another
 Usually implemented through a collaborative of
several firms, an eco-industrial park
 Real-world examples include systems in…
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Kalundborg, Germany
Choctaw, MS
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Pollution Prevention
(P2)
Overview
 Pollution prevention is a long-term, front-end strategy
aimed at reducing or eliminating the toxicity and/or
the amount of residuals at their source
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Adopts the cyclical materials flow and LCA, just as industrial
ecology does
 Preventive objectives
 Source reduction: reducing pollutants at point of generation
 Toxic chemical use substitution: substituting less harmful
chemicals for toxic ones
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How P2 Differs from Industrial Ecology
 P2 promotes risk reduction by eliminating or minimizing
wastes, while industrial ecology uses wastes as inputs
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P2 solutions are aimed at a single firm, while industrial ecology
is used by a collaborative of firms
 P2 does not view recycling as preventive, while
industrial ecology views recycling as the solution
 P2 generally requires government oversight, while
industrial ecology does not
 P2 uses efficiency as a means to an end, while
industrial ecology views efficient resource use as an
end in itself
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P2 Techniques
 Source segregation
 Keep hazardous waste from mingling with nonhazardous waste
 Raw materials substitution
 Use inputs that result in little or no hazardous waste
 Changes in manufacturing processes
 Use methods that generate fewer hazardous by-products
 Product Substitution
 Use relative safe goods instead of polluting products
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P2 Legislation
 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
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Among its express purposes is to encourage efforts to prevent
environmental damage
Integrates pollution prevention into U.S. environmental legislation
 Pollution Prevention Act of 1990
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One provision states that P2 is the primary objective: “pollution
should be prevented or reduced at the source, whenever feasible”
The secondary objective is management of residuals through
recycling, treatment, and disposal – in that order
 Similar legislation exists in other nations, including the
EU, Canada, Australia
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Pollution Prevention Hierarchy
SOURCE REDUCTION
RECYCLING
TREATMENT
DISPOSAL
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Selected Corporation Examples of P2 Initiatives
Eastman Kodak
By 2001, achieved a 42% emissions reduction of 30 priority
chemicals and a 12% reduction in CO2 emissions, as
compared to 1997 levels
E. I. DuPont
In 2003, reduced worldwide GHG emissions by 72%
relative to 1990; global emissions of air carcinogens in 2003
declined by 90% relative to 1987; hazardous wastes in
2003 were 42 percent below 1990 levels
Anheuser-Busch
Companies, Inc.
Between 1990 and 2000, reduced VOC emissions by 88%,
water pollutants by 82%, and solid wastes by 24%. P2
accounted for 55% of the VOC reduction, 43% of the
effluent reduction, and 76% of solid waste reduction
Sources: E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Company (2005); Eastman Kodak Company (2001);
U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (October 2004).
Economics and P2
 Cost-effectiveness as a criterion
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Whether a firm adopts P2 will depend in part on
its cost relative to other options, like treatment or
abatement
If P2 is chosen, cost-effectiveness can guide the
selection of the appropriate strategy
 Efficiency as a criterion
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Benefit-cost analysis can be used to determine
the extent to which a P2 strategy is implemented
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Sustainable Initiatives
and Programs
Changing How Firms Set Strategies
Three Emerging Initiatives
 Extended Product Responsibility (EPR)
 Design for the Environment (DfE)
 Green Chemistry Program
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Extended Product Responsibility
(EPR)
 Refers to efforts aimed at identifying and reducing life-
cycle environmental effects of products
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Sometimes called Product Stewardship
 Underlying premise is that all participants in the
product chain—designers, manufacturers, distributors,
consumers, recyclers, remanufacturers, and
disposers—are responsible for a product’s effect on the
environment
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Involves raw materials selection, production impacts,
product use, products at end-of-life (i.e., take-back
programs to achieve recycling or remanufacturing)
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Design for the Environment (DfE)
 Promotes using environmental considerations
with cost and performance in product
development and design
 Directly uses a cyclical flow of materials
 Used by BMW, Dell Computer, 3M, and others
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Green Chemistry Program
 Promotes development and use of chemical
technologies that achieve pollution prevention
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Sometimes known as benign chemistry or
sustainable chemistry programs
 Recognizes the importance of a product’s life
cycle in pollution prevention
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Seeks safer alternatives to hazardous chemicals,
resulting in lower risks, safer production
processes, and final products that pose less of a
threat at the end of their economic lives
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Global Information
Sharing
Technology Transfer
 Refers to the advancement and application of
technologies and strategies on a global scale
 Is considered critical to consistent progress
toward sustainable development
 Relies on interdependent factors that include
research, physical capital investment,
communication, financial resources, education
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Achieving Environmental Literacy
 Refers to an awareness of the risks of pollution
and natural resource depletion
 Promoting environmental education worldwide
has grown and was an important theme at the
Earth Summit in Rio
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Agenda 21 specifically refers to the importance of
education, public awareness, and training to
implement the global agenda
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Earth Summit in Rio
Preamble of Agenda 21
 “Humanity stands at a defining moment in history. We are
confronted with a perpetuation of disparities between and within
nations, a worsening of poverty, hunger, ill health, and illiteracy,
and the continuing deterioration of the ecosystems on which we
depend for our well-being. However, integration of environment
and development concerns and greater attention to them will
lead to the fulfillment of basic needs, improved living standards
for all, better protected and managed ecosystems and a safer,
more prosperous future.”
Source: United Nations, Division for Sustainable Development, ch. 1, paragraph 1.1 (June 29, 2000.)
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