Transcript Unix Linux Administration II

Unix Linux
Administration III
Class 5: Monitoring with Nagios. Perl
subroutines.
Agenda
Review class 4
 Review homework
 Monitoring with Nagios
 Perl Subroutines
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Homework review
ZFS, create raid5 pool
 Perl script
 Apache on Solaris
 Perl cgi
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Review:
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ZFS - Zettabyte file system
storage pools, used to aggregate devices and
abstract the user from the end actual device.
Similar to adding memory to a machine, the hosts
simply sees the new memory and allocates it as
necessary.
ZFS - transactional, copy on write standard such
that data is either completed or rejected in each
instance providing an almost incorruptible file
system
Checksums used for verification and data
recovery all of which is transparent to the user.
Review:
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ZFS supports raid and mirroring to provide for
seamless recovery from disk errors
ZFS provides for snapshots or ready-only
copies. These are simple and fast to create.
ZFS file systems are simple to create and
maintain.
ZFS is bootable as of Solaris 10/2008 release.
To create a ZFS file system create the storage
pool and then create a ZFS file system on that
object.
These file systems can be dynamically created
and destroyed.
Review:
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list = ordered data; array = perl variable
every array holds a list but every list is not an array.
list (1,2,3) or ("value1", "value2",) or ($a, $b)
list constructor operator ... (1...10)
qw avoids need for commas and quotes in many cases.
qw( a b c)
array variable names are same as for scalar except we use
an @ symbol to define an array.
@new_array = (1,2,3)
you can use one list to assign values to another
($a, $b, $c) = (1, 2, 3); or
($a, $b) = ($b, $a);
if you try this with an array it should be last otherwise the
other values will be undefined.
Review:
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You can call any element in an array using
$array[<position>] e.g. $array[2] points to the 3rd element
in @array.
Create array slices using @array[1,2]. (array of an array).
Push and pop, impact the end of an arry.
Shift and unshift work at the start of the array.
foreach $value (@array) { print $value\n"; };
Use reverse and sort to manage array data (ascii based).
Chomp works on arrays; removing element newlines.
you can use <STDIN> to obtain array data. chomp
(@input = <STDIN>);
interpolation with arrays works just as you expect.
Q3, Class 5, Unit 1
What we are going to cover:
 Nagios configurations.
What you should leave this session with:
 The relationship between objects.
 How to customize your Nagios install.
Nagios monitoring
Remember there are two types of
monitoring: System monitoring and
Network monitoring.
System monitoring is limited to local stats
but network monitoring will test services
both local and remote.
Primary Nagios components
The service is managed by a daemon, the
Nagios daemon. This process provides
the web interface and runs the various
checks.
The Nagios plug-ins are a collection of
scripts used for checking various services.
Primary configuration files.
The three primary configuration files are:
 nagios.cfg
 cgi.cfg
 resources.cfg
Primary config nagios.cfg
<nagroot>/etc/nagios.cfg
This file is read by nagios every time it is
started up.
Lots of options are defined within this file
including resources (variables), configuration
locations, object definitions, etc.
we can verify the nagios.conf file using:
<nagroot>/bin/nagios –v <nagroot>/etc/nagios.cfg
Nagios cgi.cfg
The web interface for Nagios is based on a
cgi.cfg which can be found under
/usr/local/nagios/etc/
This file is not referenced in the primary
nagios.cfg file but rather by the
config.inc.php found under
/usr/local/nagios/share.
This directory is defined in the
/etc/httpd/conf.d/nagios.conf web config.
This is one file that is NOT defined in the
primary nagios.cfg.
resources.cfg
Nagios expects to find the definition of
Macros in this file.
The location of this file is defined by nagios.cf
By default we find the value for $USER1$
here.
$USER1$=/usr/local/nagios/libexec
Nagios supports upto 32 of these macros
which can be customized for your needs.
Configuration layout
By default the <nagroot>/etc/nagios.cfg file
defines each individual cf file location but it
can be configured to support configuration
directories.
Using this standard nagios will look under
that directory for any files ending in cfg.
This allows you to consider groupings by
site, hosts, application or any other
configuration that makes sense for you.
Nagios layout suggestions.
By environment; dev, qa, prod:
/usr/local/nagios/etc/prod
/qa
/dev
Or by platform
/usr/local/nagios/etc/linux
services
hosts
host1
/usr/local/nagios/etc/windows
services
hosts
host1
Objects
Objects in nagios define a host, a service, a contact or a
group to which each belongs. Actually even commands
are objects.
object definitions configurations are:
define object-type {
parameter value
parameter value
...
}
for example
define host{
host_name
q2.books.ulcert.uw.edu
alias
Q2 Books ULCert server
Host objects
A host object provides a mapping between a
IP address and a name. As earlier noted the
location of these files is configurable. By
default object files are stored under
<nagroot>/etc/nagios/objects
required values include: host_name, alias,
address, max_check_attempts,
check_period, contact_groups,
notification_interval, notification_period,
notification_options.
Service objects
define service {
host_name
service_description
...
A service always consists of a host and a service name.
This combination must be unique. The service does not
have to be unique.
required values include: host_name, service_description,
check_command, max_check_attempts,
normal_check_interval, check_period,
notification_interval, notification_period,
notification_options, contact_groups.
The ping service is very simple; as it just checks to see if a
host is reachable (via icmp).
Contact objects
contacts define who will be notified in the
case of an event. The contact is also
related to the web authentication. The
user will only be able to see hosts and
services for which that user is defined as a
contacts
Command objects
All the available commands are defined in well the
commands.cf file. Nagios includes a sample of
these objects based on the installed plugins but
more are available.
All the available commands are defined in well the
commands.cf file
check_ping is a simple and common Nagios
command.
The interesting thing about check_ping is its use as
both a host check and a service check. This is
different than say the http or ftp checks which are
purely service checks.
commands.cfg and macros
As you review the commands.cfg file you will note the use
of $ signs. Identifiers surrounded by $ signs are actually
macros.
Nagios uses three types of macros.
1. First there are $USERX$ where X can be a value from 1
to 32. The value of these variables are defined in the
resources.cf file. $USER1$ resolves to the plugin
directory.
2. The second macro type is the arguments. These can be
passed when a command is executed. These include
$ARG1$, $ARG2$
3. The third macro group is $HOSTADDRESS$ which
resolves to the IP address of the host in the host
definition
macros cont.
Before Nagios executes a command it will
replace any macro with the corresponding
value or values.
Macros allow you to reference information
from hosts, services and other sources in
your commands.
You can create custom macros.
Understanding check_ping
# 'check_ping' command definition
define command{
command_name check_ping
command_line $USER1$/check_ping -H
$HOSTADDRESS$ -w $ARG1$ -c $ARG2$ -p 5
}
From the a localhost.cf.
check_command
check_ping!100.0,20%!500.0,60%
In this example we see that command and the arguments are
separated by an exclamation (!)
The $ARGX$ define the warning and errors thresholds
respectively.
A 100 millisecond response time and 20% loss triggers a
warning. A 500 millisecond response and 60% loss triggers
a critical alert.
Templates
Templates allow for features to be inherited by other
objects. The key directives in a template are the
name and the register value.
If the register value is set to "0" then it is template
and nagios will not treat this as a real object.
By default all templates are defined in the
templates.cf file; however, this is not required.
Templates can exist in your object based files.
There are templates definitions for contacts,
hosts, and services objects.
Contacts and notifications
When things change on your network that Nagios
monitors you will be informed based on the
notifications defined for that object.
Check the contact.cf for contact groups
Contact options include email, SMS messages,
pagers and anything else you care to configure
Timeperiods.cf defines just what you might expect.
Sample host definition.
This is a sample host config, much of the
object is inherited from the template.
define host{
use
host_name
alias
address
}
linux-server ; host template
q3.books.ulcert.uw.edu ; comment
"Q3 sun server";
172.22.159.155 ;
Sample host check
Review the localhost.cfg for sample configs
This is a sample ping test
define service{
use
host_name
service_description
check_command
}
local-service ;service template
localhost
PING
check_ping! 100.0,20%!500.0,60%
Update, test config and reload
Once you have a new config in place update your
nagios.cf file to reflect the new object if necessary.
New files under cf_dir=/usr/local/nagios/etc/conf.d do
not need an explicit definition.
Test your new configuration
/usr/local/nagios/bin/nagios –v nagios.cfg
Restart nagios
/sbin/service nagios restart
Check the web admin for the new object.
Review: nagios configuration
Two types of monitoring, system and network
Two components; nagios daemon and plugins.
Three primary config files
nagios.cfg
cgi.cfg
resources.cfg
Layout based on environment, applications, platform or something else..
Objects define hosts, services, contacts and even commands.
Macros used extensively in Nagios. macros can be customized.
Templates used to simplify configurations and for inheritance.
Test your config
/usr/local/nagios/bin/nagios –v nagios.cfg
Restart nagios
service nagios restart
In class lab 5a
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Lab notes for this session can be found
here: http://www.ulcert.uw.edu -> Class
Content -> InClass labs ->
Q3, Class 5, Unit 2
What we are going to cover:
 The Perl subroutines.
What you should leave this session with:
 How subroutines allow you to reuse code
 Perl pragmas
Perl: subroutines
Subroutines = user defined functions.
Subroutines are identified with an ampersand
(The & is usually optional).
Just as we saw with Scalars ($) and Arrays
(@), subroutines (&) can have the same
name as one of these other variables
without conflicting. However; this is may be
confusing.
Subroutines: user defined functions
Just like subroutines in other languages; a
subroutine allows for the reuse of code in
your script.
 Format:
 sub
subroutine_name {
statements;
};
 sub say_hello {
print “Hello World\n”;
};
Placing your subroutine
Your sub can be anywhere in the script,
location is unimportant. I tend to place my
at the bottom of my scripts.
If you have two subs with the same name in
the same script, the last one wins. But if
you have warning enabled you would be
notified.
Calling all subs
Ways you can invoke or call your
subroutine.
 Add () to the end of the expression
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 sub_routine();
 $value
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= sub_routine();
&sub_routine;
 Older
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versions of perl may support
do sub_routine but this has been depreciated.
Return Values
All subs have return values; the value of
the return is variable.
 The return value of the subroutine is either
the value of the last expression or the
value specifically returned
return ($value)
 Functions can also return arrays of values
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 return
(@array)
 return ($a, $b, $c);
Arguments
Arguments are passed to subroutine as
one array (@_)*
 @_ is a private variable to the subroutine
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 new
private values are created for each
subroutine. Global values stored in @_ are
restored after the subroutine is complete.
*Similar to $_
Passing arguments
To pass a value to subroutine place it in the
parentheses after the invocation.
my $day;
update ( "monday" );
sub update {
($day) = @_;
print "Hello, your appt is on: $day\n";
}
Private Variables in Functions
Normally variables are global in nature
 Use the *my() command to create local
instances of variables that only exist inside
the subroutine
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 my
@array = @_;
 my ($counter, $sum) = @array;
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Only available inside this subroutine, not
available to nested subroutines
*We will discuss my and strict later in the lecture.
Variable length parameter lists
Subroutines are often invoked with a variable list of
parameters. This is by design as Perl attempts
to place “no unnecessary limits” on the user.
However; you can test for the length if you want.
if (@_ != 5) {
print “Error, requires 5 arguments\n”;
}
But this is rarely used or needed.
High water mark
$highest = max ( 2, 6, 4, 9, 3);
sub max { my($max_so_far) = shift @_;
foreach (@_) {
if ( $_ > $max_so_far ) {
$max_so_far = $_;
}
}
$max_so_far; # tracks high water value.
}
Defining the return value
Using the return operator will immediately
return a value from the subroutine.
You may find code where every subroutine
includes a return statement. This is a
reasonable way to document what the
expected return value should be.
When to use the &
If Perl can determine from the context that
you are referencing a subroutine the & is
not required.
But, if there is a Perl built-in function with the
same name as your subroutine you must
use the &.
So when in doubt use the &
Persistent, private variables
Using “my” we make variables private to the
subroutine
sub sand {
my ($top1, $top2, $top3,) = @_;
}
If we use “state” we can retain the values of $top1, 2
and 3 between calls to the subroutine.
Using state requires Perl 5.10 which we do NOT
have by default.
Basic subroutine sample
my $n;
count();
count(2);
sub count {
$n = shift @_;
$n += 1;
print "found number: $n\n";
}
Review perl pragma
A Perl pragma is a chunk of code that attempts to
provide hints to the complier about the code.
Pragmas are specific code that you can embed in
your code causing your scripts to potentially
behave differently.
“warnings” is a pragma that will provide feedback
when there are potential issues or errors found
in your perl code.
Pragmas are defined towards the top of your
script.
#!/usr/bin/perl
use warnings;
Using the “strict” pragma
Perl is a very loose language by default. It is often
faulted for this (note Obfuscated Perl contests
in days past). Using strict attempts to enforce
good coding standards. “use strict;” should be
enabled in most if not all your Perl scripts.
Some things strict enforces:
 declared variables
 strings to be quoted
#!/usr/bin/perl
use strict;
use warnings;
When using my variables
Private variable are scoped to the smallest
enclosing block or file.
Using my with () parentheses scopes the
impact.
my $user, $credential; # only declares $user
my ($user, $credential); # declares both
The my function is provided by the “strict”
pragma.
CGI pragma
As mentioned before CGI or Common
Gateway Interface is a standard of
communication between a web server and a
client.
Perl provides a CGI focused pragma. This
module provides lots of web service related
functionality within Perl.
The Perl CGI module supports both standard
function format coding and object oriented
scripting.
Object Oriented (OO) sample next.
CGI “hello world” using Perl OO
#!/usr/bin/perl
use strict;
use CGI;
my $cgi = new CGI;
print $cgi->header;
print $cgi->start_html("Hello World");
print $cgi->h1("Hello World");
print $cgi->end_html();
exit;
Review
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subroutines - user defined functions.
subroutines identified using the ampersand &
sub subroutine_name { statements; };
sub say_hello { print "hello, world\n"; };
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subroutines can be placed anywhere in the script.
all subs return values, some are undef.
arguments passed as one array (@_)
use my to create local instances of variables.
perl pragmas provide additional functionality. common
examples include warnings, strict and cgi.
The CGI module provides many web service related
functions and supports OO scripting.
In class lab 5b
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Lab notes for this session can be found
here: http://www.ulcert.uw.edu -> Class
Content -> InClass labs ->
Homework
Will be posted later this evening.