Transcript No Slide Title

Chapter 19
Primate and Human Evolution
The Cradle of Mankind
• Olduvai Gorge on the eastern Serengeti Plain, Northern
Tanzania
– is often referred to as “The Cradle of Mankind”
• because of many important hominid discoveries there
Who are we?
•
•
•
•
Who are we?
Where did we come from?
What is the human genealogy?
These are basic questions
– that we probably have all asked ourselves
Back Farther
Than We Thought
• Just as many people enjoy tracing
– their own family history as far back as they can,
– paleoanthropologists are discovering,
– based on recent fossil finds,
– that the human family tree goes back
– much farther than we thought
Hope of Life
• In fact, a skull found in the African nation of
Chad,
– in 2002 and named Sahelanthropus tchadensis
• but nicknamed Tourmaï,
• which means "hope of life" in the local Goran language,
– has pushed back the origins of humans
– to nearly 7 million years ago
• Another discovery reported in 2006
– provides strong evidence for
– an ancestor-descendant relationship
– between two early hominid lines,
• one of which leads to our own human lineage
Understanding in Flux
• So where does this leave us, evolutionarily
speaking?
– At a very exciting time, as we seek to unravel the
history of our species
• Our understanding of our genealogy
– is presently in flux,
– and each new fossil hominid find
– sheds more light on our ancestry
Human Evolution
• Human evolution
– is just like that of other groups
• We have followed
– an uncertain evolutionary path
• As new species evolved,
–
–
–
–
they filled ecologic niches
and gave rise to descendants
better adapted to the changing environment
or they became extinct
• Our own evolutionary history
– has many “dead-end” side branches
New Hypotheses About
Our Ancestry
• We examine the various primate groups,
– in particular the origin and evolution of the
hominids,
– the group that includes our ancestors
• However, we must point out
– that new discoveries of fossil hominids,
– as well as new techniques for scientific analysis
– are leading to new hypotheses about our ancestry
Continuing Discoveries
Change Our Ideas
• New discoveries may change
– some of the conclusions stated here
• Such is the nature of paleoanthropology—
– and one reason why
– the study of hominids is so exciting
What Are Primates?
• Primates are difficult to characterize as an
order
– because they lack the strong specializations
– found in most other mammalian orders
• We can, however, point to several trends
– in their evolution that help define primates
– and are related to their arboreal,
– or tree-dwelling, ancestry
Trends in Primates
• These include changes in the skeleton
–
–
–
–
–
–
and mode of locomotion,
an increase in brain size,
a shift toward smaller, fewer,
and less specialized teeth,
and the evolution of stereoscopic vision
and a grasping hand with opposable thumb
• Not all these trends took place in every primate
group,
– nor did they evolve at the same rate in each group
Variations
• In fact, some primates
– have retained certain primitive features,
– whereas others show all
– or most of these trends
Classification of Primates
• The primate order is divided into two suborders
– Prosimii and Anthropoidea
• The prosimians, or lower primates,
– include the lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, and tree
shrews,
• while the anthropoids, or higher primates,
– include monkeys, apes, and humans
Classification of Primates
• Order Primates:
– Suborder Prosimii: (lower primates) Lemurs,
lorises, tarsiers, tree shrews
– Suborder Anthropoidea: (Higher primates)
Monkeys, apes, humans
• Superfamily Cercopithecoidea: Macaque, baboon,
proboscis monkey (Old World monkeys)
• Superfamily Ceboidea: Howler, spider, and squirrel
monkeys (New World monkeys)
• Superfamily Hominoidea: Apes, humans
– Family Pongidae: Chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas
– Family Hylobatidae: Gibbons, siamangs
– Family Hominidae: Humans
Prosimians
• Prosimians are generally small,
– ranging from species the size of a mouse
– up to those as large as a house cat
• They are arboreal, have five digits
– on each hand and foot
– with either claws or nails,
– and are typically omnivorous
• They have large, forwardly directed eyes
– specialized for night vision,
– hence most are nocturnal
Tarsier
• Tarsiers are
prosimian
primates
Prosimians
• As their name implies
• pro means "before," and simian means "ape”,
– prosimians are the oldest primate lineage,
– and their fossil record extends back to the Paleocene
• During the Eocene, prosimians were
– abundant, diversified, and widespread
– in North America, Europe, and Asia
Eocene Prosimian
• Notharctus, a primitive Eocene prosimian
– from
North
America
Prosimians Declined in Cooler
Climate
• As the continents moved northward
–
–
–
–
–
during the Cenozoic
and the climate changed from warm tropical
to cooler midlatitude conditions,
the prosimian population decreased
in both abundance and diversity
Prosimians Are Tropical
• By the Oligocene, hardly any prosimians
– were left in the northern continents
– as the once widespread Eocene populations
– migrated south to the warmer latitudes
– of Africa, Asia, and Southeast Asia
• Presently, prosimians are found
– only in the tropical regions
– of Asia, India, Africa, and Madagascar
Anthropoids
• Anthropoids evolved from a prosimian lineage
– sometime during the Late Eocene,
– and by the Oligocene
– they were a well-established group
• Anthropoids are divided into three
superfamilies
New World Monkey: Spider
Monkey
• New World Monkeys constitute a
superfamily belonging to the suborder
Anthropoidea (anthropoids)
Old World Monkey: Baboon
• Another
superfamily of the
anthropoids:
• the Old World
monkeys
Hominoids: Chimpanzees
• The
honinoids,
include apes
and humans
Early History of Anthropoids
• Much of our knowledge about
– the early evolutionary history of anthropoids
– comes from fossils found in the Fayum district,
– a small desert area southwest of Cairo, Egypt
• During the Late Eocene and Oligocene,
– this region of Africa was a lush, tropical rain forest
– that supported a diverse and abundant fauna and
flora
• Within this forest lived many different
– arboreal anthropoids as well as various prosimians
Thousands of Fossil Specimens
• In fact, several thousand fossil specimens
• representing more than 20 species of primates
– have been recovered from rocks of this region
• One of the earliest anthropoids,
– was Aegyptopithecus,
• a small, fruit-eating, arboreal primate, about 5 kg
– It had monkey characteristics and ape features
• and is the closest link we currently have
• to Old World primates
One of the Earliest Anthropoids
• Skull of
Aegyptopithecus
zeuxis,
– one of the earliest
known anthropoids
Anthropoid Superfamilies
• Anthropoids are divided into three
superfamilies
– Cercopithecoidea (Old World monkeys),
– Ceboidea (New World monkeys),
– and Hominoidea (apes and humans)
Classification of Primates
• Order Primates:
– Suborder Prosimii: (lower primates) Lemurs,
lorises, tarsiers, tree shrews
– Suborder Anthropoidea: (Higher primates
Monkeys, apes, humans
• Superfamily Cercopithecoidea: Macaque, baboon,
proboscis monkey (Old World monkeys)
• Superfamily Ceboidea: Howler, spider, and squirrel
monkeys (New World monkeys)
• Superfamily Hominoidea: Apes, humans
– Family Pongidae: Chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas
– Family Hylobatidae: Gibbons, siamangs
– Family Hominidae: Humans
Old World Monkey Attributes
• Old World monkeys
• superfamily Cercopithecoidea
– include the macaque, baboon, and proboscis
monkey
– They are characterized by close-set,
– downward-directed nostrils
• like those of apes and humans
– grasping hands,
– and a nonprehensile tail
Old Word Monkey
• Superfamily
Cercopithecoidea
• the Old World
monkeys
Old World Monkeys Distribution
• Present-day Old World monkeys
–
–
–
–
–
–
are distributed in the tropical regions
of Africa and Asia
and are thought to have evolved
from a primitive anthropoid ancestor,
like Aegyptopithecus,
sometime during the Oligocene
New World Monkeys
• New World monkeys
• superfamily Ceboidea
– are found only in Central and South America
• They are characterized
– by a prehensile tail, flattish face,
– and widely separated nostrils
– and include the howler, spider, and squirrel
monkeys
New World Monkey
• New World Monkeys are
members of the superfamily
Ceboidea
No Contact
• New World monkeys probably evolved from
African monkeys
–
–
–
–
that migrated across the widening Atlantic
sometime during the Early Oligocene,
and they have continued evolving in isolation
to this present day
• No evidence exists of any prosimian
–
–
–
–
or other primitive primates
in Central or South America
nor of any contact with Old World monkeys
after the initial immigration from Africa
Hominoids
• Hominoids
– superfamily Hominoidea
• consist of three families:
– the great apes
• family Pongidae
• which includes chimpanzees, orangutans, and gorillas
– the lesser apes
• family Hylobatidae
• which are gibbons and siamangs;
– and the hominids
• family Hominidae
• which are humans and their extinct ancestors
Hominoid Lineage
• The hominoid lineage
– diverged from Old World monkeys
– sometime before the Miocene,
– but exactly when is still being debated
• It is generally accepted, however,
– that hominoids evolved in Africa,
– probably from the ancestral group
– that included Aegyptopithecus
Climatic Shifts
• Recall that beginning in the Late Eocene
– the northward movement of the continents
– resulted in pronounced climatic shifts
• In Africa, Europe, Asia, and elsewhere,
– a major cooling trend began,
– and the tropical and subtropical rain forests
– slowly began to change to a variety of mixed
forests
– separated by savannas and open grasslands
– as temperatures and rainfall decreased
Apes Adapted
• As the climate changed,
– the primate populations also changed
• Prosimians and monkeys became rare,
– whereas hominoids diversified
– in the newly forming environments
– and became abundant
• Ape populations became reproductively
isolated
– from each other within the various forests,
– leading to adaptive radiation
– and increased diversity among the hominoids
Migration of Animals Possible
• During the Miocene,
–
–
–
–
–
Africa collided with Eurasia,
producing additional changes in the climate,
as well as providing opportunities
for migration of animals
between the two landmasses
Hominoid Relationships
• Two apelike groups evolved during the
Miocene
– that ultimately gave rise to present-day hominoids
• Although there is still not agreement
– on the early evolutionary relationships among the
hominoids,
– fossil evidence and molecular DNA similarities
– between modern hominoid families
– is providing a clearer picture of the evolutionary
pathways
– and relationships among the hominoids
Dryopithecines
• The first group, the dryopithecines,
– evolved in Africa during the Miocene
– and subsequently spread to Eurasia,
– following the collision between the two continents
• The dryopithecines were a group of hominoids
that varied
– in size,
– skeletal features,
– and life-style
Proconsul
• The best-known dryopithecine and perhaps
– ancestor of all later hominoids
– is Proconsul,
• an ape-like fruit-eating animal
• that led a quadrupedal arboreal existence,
• with limited activity on the ground
• The dryopithecines were very abundant
– and diverse during the Miocene and Pliocene,
– particularly in Africa
Proconsul
• Probable appearance of Proconsul, a
dryopithecine
Sivapithecids
• The second group, the sivapithecids,
– evolved in Africa during the Miocene
– and then spread throughout Eurasia
• The fossil remains of sivapithecids
– consist mostly of jaws, skulls, and isolated teeth
• Body or limb bones are rare,
– limiting our knowledge
– about what they looked like
– and how they moved around
Sivapithecids Ate Harder Foods
• Sivapithecids had powerful jaws
– and thick-enameled teeth with flat chewing
surfaces,
– suggesting a diet of harder foods such as nuts
• It is clear from fossil evidence,
– the sivapithecids were not involved
• in the evolutionary branch leading to humans,
– but were probably the ancestral stock
• from which present-day orangutans evolved
– In fact, one early genus, Gigantopithecus,
• was a contemporary of early Homo in Eastern Asia
Two Lineages
• Although many pieces are still missing,
–
–
–
–
–
particularly during critical intervals
in the African hominoid fossil record,
molecular DNA as well as fossil evidence indicates
that the dryopithecines, African apes, and hominids
form a closely related lineage
• The sivapithecids and orangutans
– form a different lineage that did not lead to humans
Hominids
• The hominids (family Hominidae)
–
–
–
–
the primate family that includes present-day humans
and their extinct ancestors
have a fossil record extending back
to almost 7 million years
• Several features distinguish them from other
hominoids
• Hominids are bipedal;
– that is, they have an upright posture,
– which is indicated by several modifications in their
skeleton
Comparison of Locomotion
• Comparison between
quadrupedal and
bipedal locomotion
– in gorillas and humans
• In gorillas the ischium
bone is long
– and the entire pelvis is
tilted toward the
horizontal
Comparison of Locomotion
• Comparison between
quadrupedal and
bipedal locomotion
– in gorillas and humans
• In humans the ischium
bone is much shorter
• and the pelvis is vertical
Larger Reorganized Brain
• In addition, hominids show a trend
– toward a large and internally reorganized brain
• An increase in brain size and organization
– is apparent in comparing the brains of
– a New World Monkey
Larger Reorganized Brain
• In addition, hominids show a trend
– toward a large and internally reorganized brain
• An increase in brain size and organization
– is apparent in comparing the brains of
– a Great Ape
Larger Reorganized Brain
• In addition, hominids show a trend
– toward a large and internally reorganized brain
• An increase in brain size and organization
– is apparent in comparing the brains of
– a present-day
Human
Other Distinguishing Features
• Other features that distinguish hominids from
other hominoids include
–
–
–
–
–
a reduced face
and reduced canine teeth,
omnivorous feeding,
increased manual dexterity,
and the use of sophisticated tools
Response to Climatic Changes
• Many anthropologists think
–
–
–
–
these hominid features evolved in response
to major climatic changes
that began during the Miocene
and continued into the Pliocene
• During this time, vast savannas
– replaced the African tropical rain forests
– where the lower primates
– and Old World monkeys had been so abundant
Mixed Forests and Grasslands
• As the savannas and grasslands
–
–
–
–
–
continued to expand,
the hominids made the transition
from true forest dwelling
to life to an environment
of mixed forests and grasslands
No Clear Consensus
• At present, no clear consensus exists
– on the evolutionary history of the hominid lineage
• This is due, in part,
–
–
–
–
–
to the incomplete fossil record of hominids
as well as new discoveries,
and also because some species
are known only from partial specimens
or fragments of bone
• Because of this, there is even disagreement
– on the total number of hominid species
Some Current Theories
• A complete discussion
– of all the proposed hominid species
– and the various competing schemes of hominid
evolution
– is beyond the scope of this course
• However, we will discuss the generally
accepted taxa
– and present some of the current theories
– of hominid evolution
Stratigraphic Record
• The geologic ranges
– for the commonly accepted species of hominids
Debates
• Remember that although the fossil record
– of hominid evolution is not complete,
– what exists is well documented
• Furthermore, the interpretation of that fossil
record
– precipitates the often vigorous
– and sometimes acrimonious debates
– concerning our evolutionary history
Oldest Known Hominid
• Discovered in northern Chad's Djurab Desert
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
in July 2002,
the nearly 7-million-year-old skull
and dental remains of Sahelanthropus tchadensis
make it the oldest known hominid yet unearthed
and at or near to the time
when humans diverged
from our closest-living relative, the chimpanzee
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
• Discovered in
Chad in 2002
• and dated at
nearly 7 million
years,
• this skull is
presently
• the oldest
known hominid
When Humans and Chimpanzees
Diverged
• Currently, most paleoanthropologists accept
– that the human-chimpanzee stock separated
– from gorillas about 8 million years ago
– and humans separated from chimpanzees
– about 5 million years ago
Oldest Hominid
• Besides being the oldest hominid,
– Sahelanthropus tchadensis shows a mosaic
– of primitive and advanced features
– that has both excited and puzzled
paleoanthropologists
• Its small brain case and most of its teeth
– (except the canines) are chimplike
• However, the nose, which is fairly flat,
– and the prominent brow ridges
– are features only seen, until now,
– in the human genus Homo
Leg Bones and Feet Needed
• It is hypothesized that Sahelanthropus
tchadensis
– was probably bipedal in its walking habits,
– but until bones from its legs and feet are found,
– that supposition remains conjecture
Next Oldest Hominid
• The next oldest hominid is Orrorin tugenensis,
– whose fossils have been dated at 6 million years
– and consist of bits of jaw, isolated teeth,
– finger, arm, and partial upper leg bones
• At this time, debate continues
– as to exactly where Orrorin tugenensis fits in the
hominid lineage
Ardipithecus ramidus
• Sometime between 5.8 and 5.2 million years
ago,
– another hominid was present in eastern Africa
• Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba is older
– than its 4.4 million year old relative
– Ardipithecus ramidus ramidus
• Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba is very similar
– in most features to Ardipithecus ramidus ramidus
– but in specific features of its teeth
– is more apelike than its younger relative
Stratigraphic Record
• The geologic age ranges
– for the commonly accepted species of hominids
Habitual Bipedal Walkers
• Although many paleoanthropologists think
– both Orrorin tugenensis and Ardipithecus ramidus
kadabba
– were habitual bipedal walkers
– and thus on a direct evolutionary line to humans,
– others are not as impressed with the fossil evidence
– and are reserving judgment
• Until more fossil evidence is found and
analyzed,
– any single scheme of hominid evolution presented
here would be premature
Australopithecines
• Australopithecine is a collective term
– for all members of the genus Australopithecus
• Currently, five species are recognized:
–
–
–
–
–
A. anamensis,
A. afarensis,
A. africanus,
A. robustus,
and A. boisei
Evolutionary Scheme
• Many paleontologists accept
– the evolutionary scheme in which
– A. anamensis,
• the oldest known australopithecine,
– is ancestral to A. afarensis,
• who in turn is ancestral to A. africanus
• and the genus Homo,
• as well as the side branch of australopithecines
– represented by A. robustus and A. boisei
Oldest Known Australopithecine
• The oldest known australopithecine
– is Australopithecus anamensis
– discovered at Kanapoi,
• a site near Lake Turkana, Kenya,
– by Meave Leakey
• of the National Museums of Kenya
– and her colleagues
Similar Yet More Primitive
• A. anamensis, a 4.2-million-year-old bipedal
species,
–
–
–
–
has many features in common
with its younger relative, A. afarensis,
yet is more primitive in other characteristics,
such as its teeth and skull
• A. anamensis
– is estimated to have been
– between 1.3 and 1.5 m tall
– and weighed 33 to 50 kg
New Fossil Discovery
• A discovery, reported in 2006, of fossils
– of A. anamensis, from the Middle Awash area
• in northeastern Ethiopia
– has shed new light on the transition between
– Ardipithecus and Australopithecus.
• The discovery of Ardipithecus
– in the same region of Africa
• and same times as the earliest Australopithecus
– provides strong evidence that Ardipithecus
• evolved into Australopithecus
– and links these two genera
– in the evolutionary lineage leading to humans
Australopithecus afarensis
• Australopithecus afarensis,
– who lived 3.9–3.0 million years ago,
– was fully bipedal
– and exhibited great variability in size and weight
• Members of this species ranged
– from just over 1 m to about 1.5 m tall
– and weighed between 29 and 45 kg
Lucy
• A reconstruction of
Lucy’s skeleton
• This
reconstruction
– by Owen Lovejoy
• and his students at Kent
State University, Ohio
• Lucy is an ~ 3.5-millionyear-old
– Australopithecus afarensis
•
•
•
•
illustrates how adaptations in
Lucy’s hip, leg and foot
allowed a fully bipedal
means of locomotion
Hominid Footprints
• Preserved in volcanic
ash at Laetoli, Tanzania
– Discovered in 1978 by
Mary Leakey,
– these footprints proved
hominids
– were bipedal walkers at
least 3.5 million years
ago
– The footprints of two
adults and possibly those
of a child
– are clearly visible in this
photograph
Brain Size of A. afarensis
• A. afarensis had a brain size of 380–450 cubic
centimeters (cc),
– larger than the 300–400 cc
– of a chimpanzee
– but much smaller than that of present-day humans
(1350 cc average)
Apelike Features
• The skull of A. afarensis retained many apelike
features,
–
–
–
–
including massive brow ridges
and a forward-jutting jaw,
but its teeth were intermediate
between those of apes and humans
• The heavily enameled molars
– were probably an adaptation to chewing fruits,
seeds, and roots
Landscape with A. afarensis
• Re-creation
of a
Pliocene
landscape
– showing
members
of
– Australopithecus
afarensis
– gathering
and eating
– various
fruits and
seeds
A. africanus Lived 3.0–2.3 mya
• A. afarensis was stratigraphically succeeded by
– Australopithecus africanus,
– who lived 3.0–2.3 million years ago
• The differences between the two species are
relatively minor
• They were both about the same size and
weight,
– but A. africanus had a flatter face
– and somewhat larger brain
Skull of A. africanus
• A reconstruction of
the skull
– of Australopithecus
africanus
• This skull,
– known as that of the
Taung Child,
• was discovered by
Raymond Dart in
South Africa in 1924
– and marks the
beginning of modern
paleoanthropology
Not As Well Adapted for
Bipedalism
• Furthermore, it appears the limbs
– of A. africanus may not have been
– as well adapted for bipedalism
– as those of A. afarensis
Robust Species
• Both A. afarensis and A. africanus
– differ markedly from the so-called robust species
• A. boisei (2.6–1.0 million years ago)
• and A. robustus (2.0–1.2 million years ago)
• A. boisei was 1.2–1.4 m tall
– and weighed between 34 and 49 kg
• It had a powerful upper body,
– a distinctive bony crest on the top of its skull,
– a flat face, and the largest molars of any hominids
A. robustus Was a Vegetarian
• A. robustus, in contrast,
– was somewhat smaller (1.1–1.3 m tall)
– and lighter (32–40 kg)
• It had a flat face, and the crown of its skull
– had an elevated bony crest
– that provided additional area
– for the attachment of strong jaw muscles
• Its broad flat molars indicated
– A. robustus was a vegetarian
Australopithecus robustus Skull
• The skull of
Australopithecus
robustus
• This species had a
massive jaw,
– powerful chewing
muscles,
– and large broad
flat chewing teeth
– apparently used
for grinding up
coarse plant food
Separate Lineage
• Most scientists accept the idea
–
–
–
–
that the robust australopithecines
form a separate lineage
from the other australopithecines
that went extinct 1 million years ago
The Human Lineage
Homo habilis
• The earliest member of our own genus Homo
– is Homo habilis,
– who lived 2.5-1.6 million years ago
• Its remains were first found at Olduvai Gorge,
• Tanzania,
– but it is also known
– from Kenya, Ethiopia, and South Africa
• H. habilis evolved from the A. afarensis and A.
africanus lineage
– and coexisted with A. africanus
– for approximately 200,000 years
Stratigraphic Record
• The geologic age ranges
– for the commonly accepted species of hominids
Characteristics of Homo habilis
• H. habilis had a larger brain (700 cc average)
– than its australopithecine ancestors,
– but smaller teeth
• It was about 1.2-1.3 m tall
– and only weighed 32-37 kg
Homo habilis
• Homo habilis
• is the earliest
species of the
Homo lineage
• Shown is an
approximately
1.9 million year
old skull
– from Kenya
Transition from H. habilis to
H. erectus
• The evolutionary transition
– from H. habilis to Homo erectus
– appears to have occurred in a short period of time,
– between 1.8 and 1.6 million years ago
• New findings published in 2007 suggest
– that H. habilis and H. erectus apparently coexisted
– for approximately 500,000 years
Transition from H. habilis to
H. erectus
• Some scientists think that
–
–
–
–
–
H. habilis and H. erectus
may have evolved from a common ancestor
and represent separate lineages of Homo,
rather than the traditional linear view
of H. erectus evolving from H. habilis
Homo erectus
• In contrast to the australopithecines and H.
habilis,
– which are unknown outside Africa,
– Homo erectus was a widely distributed species,
– having migrated from Africa during the Pleistocene
• Specimens have been found
– not only in Africa
– but also in Europe, India, China ("Peking Man"),
– and Indonesia ("Java Man")
Survived in Asia Until About
100,000 Years Ago
• H. erectus evolved in Africa 1.8 million years
ago
– and by 1 million years ago
– was present in southeastern and eastern Asia,
– where it survived until about 100,000 years ago
H. erectus Differed From Modern
Humans
• Although H. erectus developed regional
variations in form,
– the species differed from modern humans in several
ways
• Its brain size of 800-1300 cc,
– although much larger than that of H. habilis,
– was still less than the average for Homo sapiens
(1350 cc)
Size Similar to Humans
• The skull of H. erectus was thick-walled,
– its face was massive,
– it had prominent brow ridges,
– and its teeth were slightly larger than those of
present-day humans
• H. erectus was comparable to size to modern
humans,
– standing between 1.6 and 1.8 m tall
– and weighing between 53 and 63 kg
Skull of Homo erectus
• A reconstruction of
the skull of Homo
erectus
– a widely
distributed species
– whose remains
have been found
– in Africa, Europe,
India, China, and
Indonesia
H. erectus Was a Tool Maker
• The archaeological record indicates
– that H. erectus was a toolmaker
• Furthermore, some sites show evidence
– that its members used fire and lived in caves,
– an advantage for those living
– in more northerly climates
Homo erectus Using Tools
• Recreation of a Pleistocene setting in Europe
– in which members of Homo erectus are
– using fire and stone tools
The "Out of Africa" View
• Debate still surrounds the transition
– from H. erectus to our own species, Homo sapiens
– Paleoanthropologists are split into two camps
• On the one side are those who support
– the "out of Africa" view
• According to this camp, early modern humans
– evolved from a single woman in Africa,
– whose offspring then migrated from Africa,
• perhaps as recently as 100,000 years ago
– and populated Europe and Asia,
– driving the earlier hominid populations to
extinction
The "Multiregional" View
• The alternative explanation, the "multiregional"
view
– maintains that early modern humans
– did not have an isolated origin in Africa,
– but rather established separate populations
throughout Eurasia
• Occasional contact and interbreeding
–
–
–
–
between these populations enabled our species
to maintain its overall cohesiveness,
while still preserving the regional differences
in people we see today
Homo sapiens Evolved
From H. erectus
• Regardless of which theory turns out to be
correct,
– our species, H. sapiens
– most certainly evolved from H. erectus
Neanderthals
• Perhaps the most famous of all fossil humans are
the Neanderthals,
–
–
–
–
who inhabited Europe and the Near East
from about 200,000 to 30,000 years ago
and according to the best estimates,
never exceeded 15,000 individuals in western Europe
• Some paleoanthropologists regard the
Neanderthals
– as a variety or subspecies of our own species (Homo
sapiens neanderthalensis),
– whereas others regard them as a separate species
(Homo neanderthalensis)
Specimens Found in Neander
Valley
• In any case, their name comes
– from the first specimens found in 1856
– in the Neander Valley near Düsseldorf, Germany
Neanderthals
• The most notable difference between
Neanderthals
– and present-day humans is in the skull
• Neanderthal skulls were long and low
– with heavy brow ridges, a projecting mouth,
– and a weak, receding chin
• Their brain was slightly larger on average
– than our own, and somewhat differently shaped
Neanderthal Skull
• The Neanderthals were characterized by
prominent heavy brow ridges, a projecting
mouth, and a weak chin.
Cold Adapted
• The Neanderthal body was
–
–
–
–
–
–
more massive
and heavily muscled
than ours,
with rather short lower limbs,
much like those
of other cold-adapted people of today
• Neanderthal males averaged between 1.6-1.7 m in
height
– and about 83 kg in weight
Red Hair, Light Skin
• In 2007, scientists announced that they had isolated a
pigmentation gene
– from a segment of Neanderthal DNA
– that indicated that at least some Neanderthals
– had red hair and light skin
• Furthermore, the gene is different
–
–
–
–
–
from that of modern red-haired people,
suggesting that perhaps Neanderthals and present-day humans
developed the trait independently,
in response to similar
higher northern latitude environmental pressures
First Humans in Cold Climates
• Based on specimens from more than 100 sites,
– we now know Neanderthals
– were not much different from us,
– only more robust
• Europe's Neanderthals were the first humans
– to move into truly cold climates,
– enduring miserably long winters and short
summers
– as they pushed north into tundra country
Burial Ceremony in a Cave
• Archaeological evidence indicates
– Neanderthals lived in caves
– and participated in ritual burials
– as depicted in this painting of a burial ceremony
– such as occurred approximately 60,000 years ago
– at Shanidar Cave, Iraq
Took Care of Their Injured
• The remains of Neanderthals
–
–
–
–
are found chiefly in caves
and hut-like rock shelters,
which also contain a variety
of specialized stone tools and weapons
• Furthermore, archaeological evidence indicates
–
–
–
–
that Neanderthals commonly
took care of their injured and buried their dead,
frequently with such grave items
as tools, food, and perhaps even flowers
Cro-Magnons
• About 30,000 years ago,
– humans closely resembling modern Europeans
– moved into the region inhabited
– by the Neanderthals and completely replaced them
• Cro-Magnons, the name given to
– the successors of the Neanderthals in France,
– lived from about 35,000 to 10,000 years ago
• During this period the development of art and
technology
– far exceeded anything the world had seen before
Nomadic Hunters
• Cro-Magnons were skilled nomadic hunters,
– following the herds
– in their seasonal migrations
• They used a variety of specialized tools
– in their hunts, including perhaps the bow and arrow
• They sought refuge in caves and rock shelters
– and formed living groups of various sizes
Cro-Magnon Camp
• Pleistocene Cro-Magnon camp in Europe
Cave Painters
• Cro-Magnons were also cave painters
• Using paints made from manganese and iron
oxides,
–
–
–
–
Cro-Magnon people painted hundreds of scenes
on the ceilings and walls of caves
in France and Spain,
where many of them are still preserved today
Painting From a Cave in France
• Cro-Magnons were very skilled cave painters
– Painting of a horse
– from the cave of Niaux, France
Cultural Evolution
• With the appearance of Cro-Magnons,
– human evolution has become
– almost entirely cultural rather than biological
• Humans have spread throughout the world
– by devising means to deal with a broad range
– of environmental conditions
• Since the evolution of the Neanderthals
–
–
–
–
–
approximately 200,000 years ago,
humans have gone from a stone culture
to a technology that has allowed us
to visit other planets with space probes
and land astronauts on the Moon
Future
• It remains to be seen
–
–
–
–
how we will use this technology in the future
and whether we will continue as a species,
evolve into another species,
or become extinct as many groups have before us
Summary
• The primates evolved during the Paleocene
• Several trends help characterize primates
– and differentiate them from other mammalian
orders,
• including a change in overall skeletal structure and
mode of locomotion
• an increase in brain size
• stereoscopic vision
• and evolution of a grasping hand with opposable
thumb
Summary
• The primates are divided into two suborders
– the prosimians and the anthropoids
• The prosimians are the oldest primate lineage
– and include lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, and tree
shrews
• The anthropoids include
– the New and Old World monkeys,
– apes,
– and hominids, which are humans
• and their extinct ancestors
Summary
• The oldest known hominid is Sahelanthropus
tchadensis,
– dated at nearly 7 million years
– then two subspecies of Ardipithecus at 5.8 and 4.4 million
years respectively
• These early hominids were succeeded by the
australopithecines
– a fully bipedal group that evolved in Africa 4.2 million
years ago
• Recent discoveries indicate Ardipithecus evolved
into Australopithecus
Summary
• Currently, five australopithecine species are
known:
– Australopithecus anamensis, A. afarensis, A.
africanus, A. robustus and A. boisei
• The human lineage began
–
–
–
–
about 2.5 million years ago in Africa
with the evolution of Homo habilis,
which survived as a species
until about 1.6 million years ago
• Homo erectus evolved from H. habilis
– about 1.8 million years ago
– and was the first hominid to migrate out of Africa
Summary
• Between 1 and 1.8 million years ago, H. erectus
– had spread to Europe, India, China, and Indonesia
• The transition from H. erectus to H. sapiens is
still unresolved
– because there is presently insufficient evidence to
determine which hypothesis is correct
• the “out of Africa”
• or the “multiregional” hypothesis
• Nonetheless, H. erectus
– used fire,
– made tools,
– and lived in caves
Summary
• Neanderthals inhabited Europe and the Near East
– between 200,000 and 30,000 years ago
– and were not much different from present-day humans
• They were, however, more robust
– and had differently shaped skulls
• In addition, they made specialized tools and
weapons,
– apparently took care of their injured,
– and buried their dead
• The Cro-Magnons were the successors
– of the Neanderthals
– and lived from about 35,000-10,000 years ago
Summary
• Cro-Magnons were highly skilled nomadic
hunters,
– formed living groups of various sizes,
– and were also skilled cave painters
• Modern humans succeeded the Cro-Magnons
– about 10,000 years ago
– and have spread throughout the world
– as well as having set foot on the Moon