Transcript Slide 1

Linking Spatial and Temporal
Scales and Levels
in Human Systems
Examples in the context of food security
John Ingram
“Global Environmental Change and Food Systems”
(GECAFS)
[email protected]
Aims of the presentation
1. Discuss the nature of scales and levels in human systems.
2. Show how a “food systems” framework helps identify key
aspects of human systems in the context of food security.
3. Show value of research at regional level in helping to link
between global and local levels in human systems.
4. Give examples of how the human dimension of food
systems can enhance or hinder food security.
Scale and Level
(Cash et al, 2006, Ecology and Society )
Scale
the quantitative or analytical dimension used to
measure and study any phenomenon
Level
the unit of analysis that is located at different
positions on a given scale
Different scales and levels critical in understanding
and responding to food system interactions
Source: Cash et al., 2006 Ecology and Society
Different scales and levels critical in understanding
and responding to food system interactions cont.
Source: Cash et al., 2006 Ecology and Society
Cross-level, cross-scale, multi-level
and multi-scale interactions
Source: Cash et al., 2006 Ecology and Society
Food security…
... exists when all people, at all times, have physical
and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious
food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences
for an active and healthy life.
(World Food Summit 1996)
Why choose Food Security for thinking
about scales and levels in human systems?
• Food security is a fundamental human goal.
• Pursuit of food security has been intimately interwoven with
the evolution of many human/societal structures, eg:
• laws & regulations
• customs & ceremonies
• trade & commerce
• These structures operate on several scales (e.g. temporal,
jurisdictional, …) and at several levels within each scale
(e.g. national, regional, …).
• Interactions between and within these scales are critical to
understanding the controls on food security and
interactions with the Earth System.
Food security…
... exists when all people, at all times, have physical
and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious
food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences
for an active and healthy life.
(World Food Summit 1996)
... is underpinned by Food Systems.
Food System Concept
System
ACTIVITIES
... exists when allFood
people,
at all
times, have physical
Producing
food: natural
inputs, safe,
markets, and
…
and economic
access
to resources,
sufficient,
Processing & packaging food: raw materials, standards, storage requirement, …
nutritious
food to meet their dietary needs and food
Distributing & retailing food: transport, marketing, advertising, …
preferencesConsuming
for an food:
active
and healthy life.
acquisition, preparation, customs, …
(World Food Summit 1996)
Food System OUTCOMES Contributing to:
Social Conditions
• Income
• Employment
• Wealth
• Social capital
• Political capital
• Human capital
Food Security, i.e. stability over time
for:
FOOD
UTILISATION
FOOD
ACCESS
• Nutritional Value
• Social Value
• Food Safety
• Affordability
• Allocation
• Preference
FOOD
AVAILABILITY
• Production
• Distribution
• Exchange
Environmental
Conditions
• Ecosystem
stocks & flows
• Ecosystem
services
• Access to natural
capital
3 key “Scale Challenges”
situations in which the current combination of cross-scale and
cross-level interactions threatens to undermine food security
Ignorance
the failure to recognise important scale and level interactions in food
systems altogether, e.g. El Nino-induced changes in anchovy catch in
the E Pacific and N-efflux from global soyabean production
Mismatch
the persistence of mismatches between levels and scales in food
systems, e.g. food security responses for weather extremes planned at
national level vs. community level
Plurality
the failure to recognise heterogeneity in food systems in the way that
scales are perceived and valued by different actors, even at the same
level, e.g. local food aid programmes vs. local social safety-nets
Based on Cash et al., 2006 Ecology and Society
Regional-level studies help identify
“Scale Challenges” when trying to link global
to local food security issues
1. Climate and weather-related perturbations are often
experienced – and are increasingly available – at the
regional level
 adaptation strategies focussed on human systems may prove more
effective if managed at the regional level.
2. Environmental management issues related to food security
may manifest strongly at regional level
 solutions to such problems may often require supra-national policy
considerations (e.g. agreements on inter-basin transfers of water).
3. Regional governance structures have been established in
many parts of the world
 offer a clear ‘client’ for discussing research on scale challenges.
“Scale Challenges” across human systems
at regional scale
3 examples for southern Africa
Food System
ACTIVITIES
Producing
Processing & Packaging
Distributing & Retailing
Consuming
1. Food trade:
global vs. regional;
formal/informal trade
2. Food distribution:
food aid in 91/92 drought
3. Food retailing:
the role of supermarkets
1. Food trade
Formal & informal trading systems operate at different
levels and are often nested and/or overlapping
Informal crossborder trade
South Africa, 2002
Source: FAO Statistics Division, 2007
Zambia, 2003
Malawi received
ca. 75% of the
total amount of
maize traded
informally in the
region (WFP,
2006).
Example “Scale Challenges” related to
food trade
Ignorance
• Formal national
and donor food
security
strategies may
not account for
informal trade
Mismatch
• Trade barriers
and lack of
harmonisation of
trading systems
and tariffs
constrain food
movements
across borders
Plurality
• Both formal and
informal trade
systems key to
satisfying
national food
security
2. Food distribution
1991/92 drought
2.6 million sq miles stricken by drought
86 million people affected
20 million people at “serious risk”
1.5 million refugees and displaced people
Six “corridors” for food aid shipments
from region’s main ports: Dar es Salaam;
Nacala; Beira & Maputo; RSA; Walvis Bay;
Luanda
Example human system impediments:
• Different quarantine regulations
• Transit toll fees
• Poor port labour management (no
incentives to work more than necessary)
Example “Scale Challenges” related to
distribution of emergency food aid
Ignorance
Mismatch
Plurality
• National toll &
quarantine
policies vis à vis
regional donor
approach
• Jurisdiction of
the national
institutions not
coterminous with
supplying food to
region
• Conflict between
humanitarian
requirements
and commercial
concerns
• Global response
vis à vis poor
regional port
management
• Urgency of food
need poorlymatched with
institutional
response speed
• Variety of
objectives
among donors,
recipients and
regional
institutions
3. Food retailing
The increasing role of supermarkets
• Rapid rise of supermarkets in the southern Africa, proliferating
beyond middle-class big-city markets into smaller towns and
poorer areas
• Transforming the food retail sector (already >55% of South
African food retail)
• Changing consumption patterns: more choice + strong
marketing usually promoting more processed foodstuffs
• Supplying supermarkets potentially offers large opportunities
for producers but also presents two big challenges:
•
procurement systems involve purchase consolidation, a shift to
specialised wholesalers and tough quality and safety standards
•
investments and new practices is hard, esp. for small producers
Example “Scale Challenges” related to
supermarkets
Ignorance
Mismatch
Plurality
• Small scale
producers have
little information
about standards
for food quality
and processing
• Supermarket
purchasing
systems not well
suited to many
small producers
• Processed foods
are increasingly
available but
erode traditions
based on local
food
Conclusion 1:
Helps set cross-scale, cross-level research questions
How would interactions among rules, laws and
constitutions affect food system adaptation at different
Institutional
spatial levels?
Spatial
How would short-term changes in donor philosophy for
food- and seed-aid as applied at the local level affect
Temporal
long-term regional self-reliance?
Management
How would implementing different short-term adaptation
policies in different nations influence regional food
Jurisdictional
security goals?
Management
Conclusion 2:
Importance of Scales and Levels when analysing
Food Systems in context of drivers and feedbacks
Environmental feedbacks
e.g. water quality, GHGs
GEC DRIVERS
Changes in:
Land cover & soils, Atmospheric
Comp., Climate variability & means,
Water availability & quality,
Nutrient availability & cycling,
Biodiversity, Sea currents
& salinity, Sea level
Food System ACTIVITIES
‘Natural’
DRIVERS
e.g. Volcanoes
Solar cycles
Producing food
Processing & Packaging food
Distributing & Retailing food
Consuming food
Food System OUTCOMES
DRIVER
Interactions
Socioeconomic
DRIVERS
Changes in:
Demographics, Economics,
Socio-political context,
Cultural context
Science & Technology
Socioeconomic feedbacks
e.g. livelihoods, social cohesion
Contributing to:
Food Security
Social
Welfare
Food
Utilisation
Environ
Welfare
Food
Access
Food
Availability