Transcript Document

Main References:
Braund, David. Augustus to Nero: a Sourcebook on
Roman History, 31 B.C. -- A.D. 68. London: Croom
Helm, 1985.
Buckland, W.W. A Text-book of Roman Law from
Augustus to Justinian. Cambridge: Cambridge U.
Press, 1963.
Cooley, M.G.L., ed. The Age of Augustus. Harrow:
London Association of Classical Teachers, 2003.
Eck, Werner. The Age of Augustus. Malden, M.A.:
Blackwell, 2003.
Galinsky, Karl, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the
Age of Augustus. Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press,
2005.
• Grant, R.M. Augustus to Constantine: the Thrust of
the Christian Movement into the Roman World. New
York: Harper & Row, 1970.
• Jones, A.H.M. Augustus. London: Chatto &
Windus, 1970.
• Lecky, W.E.H. History of European Morals from
Augustus to Charlemagne. London: Watts, 1946.
• Ogilvie, R.M. The Romans and Their Gods in the
Age of Augustus. London: Chatto & Windus, 1969.
• MacMullen, Ramsay. Romanization in the Time of
Augustus. New Haven: Yale U. Press, 2000.
• Rives, J.B. Religion and Authority in Roman Carthage
from Augustus to Constantine. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1995.
• Severy, Beth. Augustus and the Family at the Birth of
the Roman Empire. New York: Routledge, 2003.
• Shotter, D.C.A. Augustus Caesar. London: Routledge,
1991.
• Southern, Pat. Augustus. London: Routledge, 1998.
• Wells, Joseph. A Short History of Rome to the Death of
Augustus. London: Methuen, 1913.
• Wells, Peter S. The Battle that Stopped Rome: Emperor
Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in
Teutoburg Forest. New York: W.W. Norton, 2003.
• On Ides of March (i.e., March 15), 44 B.C.,
Brutus, Cassius, and a group of
conservative senators assassinated Julius
Caesar
• Comments on Julius Caesar =
controversial (both positive and negative)
[cf. Augustus, mostly positive]
• Civil war and anarchy for about 14 years
• Octavian (62 B.C. -- A.D. 14; Caesar’s grand nephew)
was only 18 years old in 44 B.C. [the later Augustus, r. 27
B.C. -- A.D. 14); realistic and practical.
•
He was a traditional politician [opposite to Caesar;
perhaps learnt the lessons from Caesar, or simply
different character], recruited Caesar’s veterans: (1)
summer, 43 B.C., joined with Cicero and drove Mark
Anthony out of Italy; (2) 42 B.C., with Mark Anthony
defeated Brutus and Cassius; (3) then, by force, elected
to be one of the consuls at the age of 19, then turned
around and joined with Mark Anthony and killed
Cicero; (4) by 33 B.C., civil war with Mark Anthony, but
Octavian got the support from General Agrippa; (5) in
31 B.C., defeated Mark Anthony [with Egyptian Queen
Cleopatra] at Actium [a sea battle], thus, symbolizing the
complete end of Roman Republic and the civil war.
• On August 1, 30 B.C., Octavian entered
Alexandria at the age of 33 (same as
Alexander the Great’s death age; both
young and brilliant); but Octavian refused
to visit Alexander’s Tomb in Alexandria,
saying, “True greatness lies not in
conquest but in reconstruction.”
• Octavian, “Better a safe commander than
a bold.” (cf. Alexander the Great)
• Octavian [Augustus] began 2 years
younger than Alexander, but + 43 more
years to live/rule; and accomplished as
peacemaker and architect of the Roman
Empire.
• On January 16, 27 B.C., Octavian became
Imperator Augustus, thus, the first
Emperor of the Roman Empire; but he
preferred the title, Princep (which means
First Citizen), thus, his reign was also
called the Principate.
• In 12 B.C., Augustus was also the Pontifex
Maximus
• In A.D. 14, Augustus died (age 76).
• Augustus must have some sterling qualities
to win and keep the devoted loyalty of a
number of friends: General Agippa (d. 12
B.C.) was his faithful friend for 32 years;
Maecenas was his faithful friend for over
50 years; and both left their fortunes to
Augustus.
• Augustus was conservative and oldfashioned (dressing traditional Roman
toga, and reviving old ceremonies): “The
man who does not wish to change the
existing political order is a good man.”
(cf. Metternich, “Change leads not to
progress, not to salvation, but to
perdition; if you change anything,
you will upset everything”)
• Augustus was modest: he lived, dressed,
and ate simply; and he had no palace (cf.
Hadrian’s palaces and walls, etc.); but
under his reign, the Roman Empire was in
peace, stability, security, prosperity, and
justice, thus, “Pax Romana” (= Roman
Peace).
• Augustus was very strict to his daughter,
Julia: spinning and weaving, and Augustus
married her 3 times politically to (1) young
Marcellus, then (2) old Agrippa; and finally
(3) Tiberius (a military genius, who became
his heir and successor).
• Augustus was in good terms with the Senate
(cf. Julius Caesar), and returned the Senate
from 900 (Julius Caesar) to 600 [deleting
his enemies, and/or had already controlled
the Senate].
• The Age of Augustus: there were many
great poets, such as Virgil, Horace, etc., and
historians, such as Tacitus, Livy, etc.
• Conclusion:
• Augustus’ greatest gift was his political
tact. He evidently had a passion for
efficiency, but he was careful not to offend
public opinion by violent changes, but to
work as far as possible within established
forms.
• Augustus was determined to rule the
Empire, but he disguised his absolute
powers in constitutional wrappings, and
this made them acceptable to the upper
classes, and established a form of
government, which proved more or less
stable for about 2 centuries (cf. Julius
Casasr).
• The Roman Empire after Augustus (d. A.D. 14)
• Tiberius, r. 14-37 (Augustus’ daughter, Julia’s 3rd
husband, & adopted son/heir)
• Despite some relatively incompetent emperors,
such as Nero, r. 54-68 and Caligula, etc., the
Roman system (bureaucracy) was sturdy and
strong, thus, enduring and lasting with
unprecedented peace and prosperity.
• The Five Good Emperors (for 84 years, a
series of good emperors, the best, the
wisest, and the most statesmanlike that the
world has ever seen, set upon the Roman
Emperorship:
• Nerva (r. 96-98)
• Trajan (r. 98-117)
• Hadrian (r. 117-138) [Birley, Anthony.
Hadrian: The Restless Emperor; always
inspecting his governors, watching his
troops at their exercises; always walking or
riding but not on 4 wheeled vehicle; head
without cover in German snow nor
Egyptian sun; building the Hadrian Wall in
Northumbria, Scotland, Britain for
defending against the Celts; with double
characters: dignified & playful, merciful &
cruel, = both admiration and fear]
• Antoninus Pius (r. 138-161)
• Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180) [a stoic philosopher, a poet,
and a warrior king; Meditations and Letters of Marcus
Aurelius (Penguin Classics)]
• The empire under the rule of Marcus Aurelius was
vigorous, especially shown in the swift actions and
determined will in waging wars against the barbarians.
Nevertheless, to some historians, it was in Marcus Aurelius’
time that symptoms of the decline and fall of the Roman
Empire were exposed. (cf. Qing China) With the
continuous expansion of the Roman Empire, the
bureaucracy and the military force were enlarged, and
expenditure increased. It was in the reign of Marcus
Aurelius that the problem of financial difficulty became
evident.
• In 180, Marcus Aurelius chose his own
incompetent son: Commodus, r. 180-192 to
succeed his throne, starting a century of anarchy,
assassination, military despotism, civil war, coup
d’etat, and economic depression, etc.
• “A man might be a general one day, emperor the
next, and dead the third.”
• The empire was especially chaotic, confusing, and
uncertain between 235 and 285 (19 emperors in
50 years; except one, all died in battle or were
assassinated [i.e., violent age; previously,
Augustus = golden age, 5 Good Emperors = silver
age; now = age of iron and rust]).
• The exception: the only emperor who died in
peace [deathbed] was Septimus Severus, r.
193-211: man of strength and power, but
could not understand the political traditions.
He increased tax to fatten his treasuries and to
appease his military troops. His dying words
to his son was “Enrich the soldiers and scorn
the world.” (characteristic of his reign and his
times).
• Anarchy until Diocletian, r. 284-305,
Dominus et Deus (Lord and God), thus, the
age of Dominate (in English). He
reformed with harsh measures,
suppressing inflation, etc.
• Constantine, r. 306-337
• 312, Battle of the Milvian Bridge;
Edict of Milan (legalizing
Christianity).
• Symptoms of decline with internal and external problems
• The first signs of stress: 3rd century A.D., externally, the
Huns attacked northern and eastern Europe, forcing the
Germans threatening the Roman Empire; and internally,
(1) economically: such as inflation [coinage not to be
trusted: Marcus Aurelius had already lowered the
standard silver coin, Septimus Severus further increased
the base metal almost to 50%; by 3rd century, Roman coin
was a copper piece coated thinly with silver only], drastic
drop of productive population [according to official
statistics], with plagues, famines, wars, and problems in
taxation, robbers by land, pirates by sea [no more Pax
Romana; (2) politically: anarchy, then, military
autocracy; and (3) intellectually: no more Marcus
Aurelius.
• On the whole, optimism was
declining, and pessimism was
increasing.
• Christianity (legalized then, and
organized) appealed to
uneducated and educated
Romans alike.