Contrastive linguistics: an introduction
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Transcript Contrastive linguistics: an introduction
Contrastive linguistics: an
introduction
Tadeusz Piotrowski
Contrastive linguistics: what is it?
Contrastive linguistics is the systematic
comparison of two or more languages,
with the aim of describing their similarities and
differences,
focusing, however, on differences,
it is predominantly practical.
The term “contrastive linguistics”
was used for the first time by Whorf in 1941.
Basics
Form
lecture
attendance required
Prerequisites
knowledge of basic linguistic notions
Textbooks
Fisiak J., Lipińska-Grzegorek M., Zabrocki T.,
1978/1987.
An Introductory English-Polish Contrastive Grammar
Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe
Krzeszowski T.P., 1984.
Gramatyka angielska dla Polaków.
PWN. Warszawa
Willim,E. and Mańczak-Wohlfeld,E., 1997.
A contrastive approach to problems with English.
Kraków: PWN.
CL and linguistics
general linguistics
theory of linguistics
similarities in languages
what is common to all languages in the world
comparative linguistics
differences between languages
typology of languages
aiming at classification of all languages in the world
synchronic or
diachronic
CL and comparative linguistics
comparative linguistics
contrastive linguistics (CL)
differences (and similarities) between two
(usually) languages
contrastive linguistics
differences (usually) between two (usually)
languages
basis for typological description
mainly practical applications
translation
foreign language teaching and learning
bilingual lexicography (dictionaries)
why differences?
it is assumed that the two languages are
similar except for the points described as
different
CL in linguistics
the languages being compared can be
related
Polish and English
or can be unrelated
like Polish and Chinese
can be from the same historical period
Polish and English in the 20th c.
or can be from different historical periods
English and Polish from the 16th and the 20th
c.
CL in linguistics
usually, however,
CL is synchronic comparative linguistics
without the historical dimension
CL can be
theoretical
applied
theoretical CL
gives an exhaustive account of the
differences and similarities between two or
more languages,
provides an adequate model for their
comparison.
applied CL
on the basis of the theoretical framework
provided by theoretical CA/CS,
gives the researcher the information
necessary
to conduct actual contrastive analyses.
CL: terms
contrastive linguistics (or its methods) is also
called
contrastive studies
contrastive analysis
interlingual linguistics
the rationale for studying CL
who:
prospective teachers of a foreign language
CL and a FL teacher
why:
contrastive studies are (were) used as a
means of predicting and/or
explaining difficulties of second language
learners
with a particular mother tongue (Polish)
in learning a particular target language
(English)
however, CL does not explain all problems of
foreign language students
CL and a FL teacher
other hypotheses to explain the problems in
learning/teaching a foreign language
error analysis
performance analysis
interlanguage studies
language awareness studies
these belong to applied linguistics
foreign language learnign/teaching
methodology
advantages
it is suggested that
when FL learners are made aware of L1:L2
contrasts
this makes it easier for them
to learn difficult FL structures
L1 interference accounts for some 30% of
error.
what to compare
early contrastive studies focused on
microlinguistic analysis
phonology/phonetics
grammar (syntax, inflection)
lexis
today there are also
contrastive pragmatics
cross-cultural/intercultural pragmatics
contrastive rhetoric
what to compare
microlinguistic analysis: examples
What are the consonant phonemes in
languages X and Y?
How do they differ in inventory, realization, and
distribution?
What is the tense system of languages X and
Y?
What are the verbs of saying in languages X
and Y?
what to compare
pragmatic analysis: examples
How is cohesion expressed in languages X
and Y?
How are the speech acts of apologizing and
requesting expressed in languages X and
Y?
How are conversations opened and closed in
languages X and Y?
this course
mainly practical
basic theoretical notions
a review of microlinguistic contrasts
how to compare?
what is the basis for comparison?
comparison of seemingly related phenomena:
“to compare them would be tantamount to
putting ten-ton lorries and banana skins in the
same class on the grounds that neither ought
to be left on footpaths”.
Carl James (1980). Contrastive Analysis. London:
Longman, p :167
how to compare?
object A
object B
either have something in common
and we can compare them
or do not have anything in common
and we cannot compare them
it is arguably difficult to find objects that do
not have anything in common
but:
God and ...
how to compare?
that something in common
is not A
is not B
is C
C is called Tertium Comparationis (TC)
Tertium Comparationis
what is common in comparison between
languages
is probably the meaning of a pair of
sentences,
in other words,
their translation equivalence
translation equivalence
there is one big problem
CL
translation is not about systems
studies the systems of two languages
it is about texts
this is a basic distinction in linguistics
system and text
langue and parole
competence and performance
translation equivalence
text translation
translation of a particular sentence depends
on other sentences around it (context)
on the function of the whole text
its stylistic level
the user of the text
system translation
translation of sentences without any context
though the most probable one is used
translation equivalence
Eng.:
I loved you.
Pol.:
Kochałem
kochałam
kochałom
cię
ciebie
was
Panów
Panie
Państwa
kochałom: an example
„...to chybam ja się przesuwało dalej i
wchodziło w krąg następnego spojrzenia... w
miarę postępów [mej wędrówki]
powiększałom się i rozpoznawałom siebie...”
Stanisław Lem Maska
system and text equivalence
that is why
system equivalence can be called
correspondence
text equivalence can be called
equivalence
Equivalence/Tertium Comparationis
What is, in fact, equivalence?
we know it is based on a Tertium
Comparationis
but what use as a TC?
TC: requirements
TC should be
external to both languages
a category based on one language has no
counterpart
usable
for teachers: can be used without extensive
theoretical studies
TC in lexical equivalence
concept
(word) sign- - - - - - - -referent (object)
TC in lexical equivalence
Either referents or concepts can be treated as
TCs.
We can reject referents as a TC because,
there are no pure references,
the very act of distinguishing a referent
depends to a large degree on the relevant
language
Engl. finger Pol. palec
TC in lexical equivalence
Concepts can be also rejected.
They are not suitably external to any
language
an English word has an English meaning
a Polish word has a Polish meaning
They are theoretical constructs depending on
a language.
Other views.
TC
TC should be external to the two languages
but it should include them
language use?
situation of use of both languages
translation is used in situations when both
language are used
situations
"How meaning X is expressed in L1 and L2?„
This is a question based on meaning.
This question goes from the vague notion of
meaning,
about which there is little theoretical
agreement,
goes to two unknowns:
L1 and L2 items.
We can say that we have to do with three
unknown objects here.
situations
How else can one find similarities/contrasts in
meaning between two languages?
"In the situation S, when an expression X is
used by the L2 speaker to speak of Z, what
would be the most natural expression Y used
by the L1 speaker?".
This does not depend on any theoretical
assumptions.
it includes two known entities (S and X), which
are used to reach the third entity (Y).
Competent bilinguals can easily answer such
questions.
Situations
Situations are either typical of L1 or of L2,
and linguistic expressions are included in the
situations, not vice versa.
Situations, in turn, cannot be separated from
wider contexts,
ultimately from the context of culture.
Situations-applicability
Lyons (1977). Semantics. CUP.
a particular lexeme (or expression, or whole
utterance) is applicable (i.e. may be correctly applied)
in a certain context, situational or linguistic ...;
it is applicable to individuals or properties of
individuals.
We may use the term 'applicability', in fact, for any
relation that can be established between elements or
units of language ... and entities in, or aspects of, the
world in which the language operates.
Equivalence: other types
Tomasz Krzeszowski
statistical equivalence
system equivalence
semanto-syntactic equivalence
rule equivalence
pragmatic equivalence