Transcript Document

Grammatical metaphor
J R Martin
Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney
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1. Grammatical metaphor
2
- grammatical metaphor...
- at Manly wharf
[Dad, reading sign]
‘Seven miles from Sydney and 1000 miles
from care’
[Phoebe, age 4] - Where’s Care?
- in a Manly bakeshop
[Xian]
[Server]
I wonder if I could have one of those...
- Why do you wonder? It’s right there in
front of you.
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‘grammati cal met aphors’ ( Halli day 1 9 94 )
met aphors, because…
- th ere are tw o me anings involved
- th ey are layered ( lite ral/t ransf erred ; f igure/g roun d; surf ace/ deep)
- one resembles th e oth er ( symbolisat ion)
gramma ti cal, because…
- th e mea nings involved are th e kind t ypically ma de t hrough w ords
in st ructu res ( preposit ional phrase, imperat ive mood…)
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‘c are’ as a place/ f eeling…
‘w orry’ a s a locat ion
1 0 00 miles f rom care
1 0 00 miles f rom caring/ worr ying
1 0 00 miles away and so I don’t hav e t o worr y about t hings
‘w orry’ a s a process
…thus an ‘ ab st ract’ locat ion st anding fo r a process
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‘c are’ as a place/ f eeling…
‘w orry’ a s a locat ion
1 0 00 miles f rom care
1 0 00 miles f rom caring/ worr ying
1 0 00 miles away and so I don’t hav e t o worr y about t hings
‘w orry’ a s a process
…thus an ‘ ab st ract’ locat ion st anding fo r a process
6
‘r equest’ a s a co mma nd/ st at ement…
‘c omma nd’ as declarat ive
I wonder if I could hav e a wa lnut bun.
Could I have a wa lnut bun?
Give me a wa lnut bun.
‘c omma nd’ as imperat ive
…thus a declarat ive st anding f or a command
7
Grammatic al me t aphor enables the more traditional ‘l exical me t aphors’ by
setting up s t ruct ural environments that induce the layers of meaning…
I have w alked that long road to freedom. I have tried not to falter; I
have made missteps along the w ay. But I have discovered the
secret that af t er climbing the great hill, one only finds that ther e
are many more hills to climb. I have taken a mo ment here to rest ,
to steal a view of the glorious v ista that surrounds me, to look back
on the distance I hav e come. But I can only rest for a mo ment, for
w ith freedom come responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my
long w alk is not yet ended. [f rom Mandela 1995: 7 5 1]
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‘f reedo m’ as a location
I have walked t hat long road t o f reedo m
I have walked t hat long road t o being f ree
I have walked a long wa y so I could be f ree
‘f reedo m’ as quality
‘walk’ as a t hing
my long walk is not yet ended
I haven’t ended/ f inished my long wa lk yet
I haven’t f inished walking yet
‘walk’ as a process
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2. Ideational grammatical metaphor
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- 'concrete' (‘when I was a child I spake as a child’)
I was not born with a hunger to be free. I was born free - free in every way
that I could know. Free to run in the fields near my mother's hut, free to
swim in the clear stream that ran through my village, free to roast mealies
under the stars and ride the broad backs of slow-moving bulls. As long as I
obeyed my father and abided by the customs of my tribe, I was not troubled
by the laws of man or God. [Mandela 1995: 750-751]
participant as Thing (noun)
I, fields, hut, stream, village, mealies, stars, bulls, father...
quality as Epithet (adjective)
free, clear, broad
process as Process (verb)
was born, to run, to swim, to roast, rise, obeyed...
logical relation as Textual Theme (conjunction)
as long as
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‘freedom’ as quality (adjective)
I was not born with a hunger to be free. I was born free - free in every way
that I could know. Free to run in the fields near my mother's hut, free to
swim in the clear stream that ran through my village, free to roast mealies
under the stars and ride the broad backs of slow-moving bulls. As long as I
obeyed my father and abided by the customs of my tribe, I was not troubled
by the laws of man or God.
It was only when I began to learn that my boyhood freedom was an
illusion, when I discovered as a young man that my freedom had already
been taken from me, that I began to hunger for it. At first, as a student, I
wanted freedom only for myself, the transitory freedoms of being able to
stay out at night, read what I pleased and go where I chose. Later, as a
young man in Johannesburg, I yearned for the basic and honourable
freedoms of achieving my potential, of earning my keep, of marrying and
having a family - the freedom not to be obstructed in a lawful life.
‘freedom’ as thing (noun)
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‘walking’ as a process (verb)
I have walked that long road to freedom.
But I can only rest for a moment, for with freedom
come responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my
long walk is not yet ended.
‘walking’ as a thing (noun)
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‘freedom’ as an object of desire...
Later, as a young man in Johannesburg, I yearned for the
basic and honourable freedoms of achieving my potential,
of earning my keep, of marrying and having a family.
‘freedom’ as a catalyst of change...
It was this desire for the freedom of my people to live
their lives with dignity and self-respect that animated my
life, that transformed a frightened young man into a bold one,
that drove a law-abiding attorney to become a criminal, that
turned a family-loving husband into a man without a home,
that forced a life-loving man to live like a monk.
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cause...
It was this desire for the freedom of my people to live their
lives with dignity and self-respect...
effects...
- that animated my life,
- that transformed a frightened young man into a bold one,
- that drove a law-abiding attorney to become a criminal,
- that turned a family-loving husband into a man without a home,
- that forced a life-loving man to live like a monk.
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- in more ‘spoken’ language...
I wanted my people to be free
and so my life became animated
and so a frightened young man became bold
and so a law-abiding attorney became a criminal
and so a family-loving husband became a man without a home
and so a life-loving man lived like a monk
‘cause’ between clauses
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- in more ‘written’ language...
This desire for the freedom of my people to live their lives with
dignity and self-respect
animated my life,
transformed a frightened young man into a bold one,
drove a law-abiding attorney to become a criminal,
turned a family-loving husband into a man without a home,
forced a life-loving man to live like a monk.
‘cause’ in the clause (Agent affecting Medium)
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3. Ideational grammatical metaphor
3.1 constructing knowledge in social science
(Bernstein - sociology)
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- Bernstein changing gears...
Consider a situation where a small holder meets another
and complains that what he/she had done every year
with great success, this year failed completely. The
other says that when this happened he/she finds that this
'works'. He/she then outlines the successful strategy.
Now any restriction to circulation and exchange reduces
effectiveness. Any restriction specialises, classifies and
privatises knowledge. Stratification procedures produce
distributive rules which control the flow of procedures
from reservoir to repertoire. Thus both Vertical and
Horizontal discourses are likely to operate with
distributive rules which set up positions of defence and
challenge.
21
- writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example)
Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are
painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming
white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the
sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome
rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a
cover, and peeps through its slit.
participants as nouns:
lavatory, walls, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring,
paper
qualities as adjectives:
stark, bare, pristine, white, square
processes as verbs:
imagine, are painted, sits, is folded, hangs, is hidden, peeps
22
- writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example)
Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are
painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming
white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the
sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome
rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a
cover, and peeps through its slit.
participants as nouns:
lavatory, wall, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring, paper
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- writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example)
Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are
painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming
white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the
sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome
rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a
cover, and peeps through its slit.
participants as nouns:
lavatory, walls, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring,
paper
qualities as adjectives:
stark, bare, pristine, white, square
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- writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example)
Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are
painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming
white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the
sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome
rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a
cover, and peeps through its slit.
participants as nouns:
lavatory, walls, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring,
paper
qualities as adjectives:
stark, bare, pristine, white, square
processes as verbs:
imagine, are painted, sits, is folded, hangs, is hidden, peeps
25
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- towards writing as we write...
In the second lavatory there are books on a shelf, pictures on the wall, and
some relaxing of the rigours of the first. In the third lavatory there are
books on the shelf, pictures on the wall, and perhaps a scattering of tiny
objects. In the fourth lavatory the rigour is totally relaxed. The walls are
covered with a motley array of postcards, there is a wide assortment of
reading matter and curio. The lavatory roll is likely to be uncovered and the
holder may well fall apart in use.
nominalising (processes as things):
some relaxing of the rigours of the first
[not organised as strictly]
a scattering of tiny objects
[tiny objects are scattered (about)]
in use
[when used]
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- written explanations...
We can say that as we move from the first to the fourth
lavatory we are moving from a strongly classified to a
weakly classified space; from a space regulated by
strong rules of exclusion to a space regulated by weak
rules of exclusion. [Bernstein 1975: 153]
'cause in the clause'
(nominalised processes as Agents):
a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion
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- drifting from exemplification to theory (Maton’s semantic gravity)...
Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are
painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming
white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink.
A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or
hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and
peeps through its slit. In the second lavatory there are books on a shelf,
pictures on the wall, and some relaxing of the rigours of the first. In the
third lavatory there are books on the shelf, pictures on the wall, and
perhaps a scattering of tiny objects. In the fourth lavatory the rigour is
totally relaxed. The walls are covered with a motley array of postcards,
there is a wide assortment of reading matter and curio. The lavatory roll
is likely to be uncovered and the holder may well fall apart in use. We
can say that as we move from the first to the fourth lavatory we are
moving from a strongly classified to a weakly classified space; from a
space regulated by strong rules of exclusion to a space regulated by
weak rules of exclusion. [Bernstein 1975: 153]
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- Bernstein’s explanatory drift...
31
the pay -of f -
definiti on s ( taxon omy building te chnicalit y ; Halliday/ Martin 20 0 3 )
...a Vert ical discourse (Token/term)
takes the f orm of ( = )
a coherent , explicit and sy stematically principled str uctur e, hierarchically organised as
in the sciences, or it takes t he f orm of a series of specialised languages with
specialised modes of inter rogati on and specialised criteria f or the production and
circulation of te xts as in the social sciences and humanities. (Value/definition)
A Horizo ntal discourse (Token/term)
entails ( = )
a set of strategies wh ich are local, segmentally organised, context specif ic and
dependent, f or maximising encounters wi t h pers on s and habitats. (Value/defiition)
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the pay-off - explanations
(Halliday 1998, 2004; Martin & Wodak 2004)
Consider a situation where a small holder meets another and
complains that what he/she had done every year with great
success, this year failed completely. The other says that when
this happened he/she finds that this 'works'. He/she then outlines
the successful strategy.
Now any restriction to circulation and exchange reduces
effectiveness. Any restriction specialises, classifies and privatises
knowledge. Stratification procedures produce distributive rules
which control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire.
Thus both Vertical and Horizontal discourses are likely to operate
with distributive rules which set up positions of defence and
challenge.
33
- finely tuned causality...
Now any restriction to circulation and exchange (Agent)
reduces
effectiveness (Medium)
Any restriction (Agent)
specialises, classifies and privatises
knowledge (Medium)
Stratification procedures (Agent)
produce
distributive rules… (Medium)
distributive rules which (Agent)
control
the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire (Medium)
...distributive rules which (Agent)
set up
position of defence and challenge (Medium)
34
3.2 Constructing knowledge in humanities
(Billig - critical theory)
35
- classifying discourse…
There are several very different transformations
which the concept ‘nominalization’ can describe:
Linguistic Nominalization...
Etymological Nominalization...
Psychological Nominalization...
Between-Text Nominalization...
Within-Text Nominalization...
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- arguing
… explaining how the fact that critical writers themselves use
language they critique as distorted might be construed as
distorting their own discourse:
Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals
and distorts. Their argument is made through the use of
nominalization. Because it uses forms that are said to
distort, the argument must itself be distorted. Thus, the
critical argument either destroys itself – or reduces itself to
a self-referential paradox. Either way, it is seriously
compromised.
37
Causal relations in this explanation, both between clauses
(via the linkers because, thus) and within them
(Halliday's Agent Medium relations) depend on Billig
nominalising what critical writers do (i.e. argue that
nominalisation conceals and distorts) as an argument...
Critical
writers
have
argued
that
nominalization conceals and distorts. Their
argument is made through the use of
nominalization. Because it uses forms that are said
to distort, the argument must itself be distorted.
Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself –
or reduces itself to a self-referential paradox.
Either way, it is seriously compromised.
38
...the argument is then played off as an affecting or affected participant as
his rhetoric requires. The relevant affecting and affected participants are
outlined in Table 1 (with elided items filled in parentheses).
Agent (affecting)
nominalization
(by critical writers)
It (their argument)
forms
(distorting forms)
the critical argument
(the critical argument)
(distorting forms)
Process
conceals and distorts
is made
uses
are said to distort
must be distorted
destroys
reduces
is compromised
Medium (affected)
(something)
their argument
forms
(something)
the argument
itself (the critical argument)
itself (the critical argument)
it (the critical argument)
39
Turning to considerations of information flow, Billig begins by
referring to critical writers; but his explanation is not about them,
it's about their arguments. So their argument is nominalised and
re-iterated thereafter as the Theme (pace Halliday) of every clause
(bold face red font below):
Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals and distorts.
Their argument is made through the use of nominalization.
Because it uses forms that are said to distort,
the argument must itself be distorted.
Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself –
or (the argument) reduces itself to a self-referential paradox.
Either way, it is seriously compromised.
40
At the other end of all but one these clauses Billig concentrates on his
news, namely, the negative evaluation he is developing of critical
writers' argument (bold face below). The bad news involves either
negative processes (e.g. distorts) or attributes (e.g. a self-referential
paradox):
Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals and distorts.
Their argument is made through the use of nominalization.
Because it uses forms that are said to distort,
the argument must itself be distorted.
Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself –
or (the argument) reduces itself to a self-referential paradox.
Either way, it is seriously compromised.
41
These negative evaluations highlight another important function of
nominalisation - that of affording opportunities for evaluation. As
foreshadowed in Trew 1979, resources for both positive and
negative evaluation in language key heavily on nominals (cf.
Trew's rioting blacks, African demonstrators, thirteen unarmed
Africans, Zimbabweans).
And without nominalisation, there would be no affected participant
for long-term critics of CDA to pounce upon:
Long-term opponents of critical discourse analysis might
pounce gleefully upon the preceding analyses.
42
3.3 Comparison with lexical metaphor
43
compare lexical metaphor...
The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and peeps
through its slit.
...a word is used in such a way that:
- there are two meanings involved
['peeping' and 'just visible']
- they are layered (literal/transferred; figure/ground; surface/deep)
['peeping' literal, 'just visible' transferred]
- one implies the other (symbolisation)
['looking quickly and secretly' implying 'just visible'
44
vs grammatical metaphor... (Halliday 1994, Simon-Vandenbergen 2003)
...a structure is used in such a way that:
a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion
- there are two meanings involved
Medium (affected)
Process
Agent (cause)
a space
regulated
by strong rules of exclusion
(Someone) regulated the space
x by strongly excluding things by means of rules
- they are layered (literal/transferred; figure/ground; surface/deep...)
Medium process Agent literal
& enhancing clause complex transferred
- one implies the other (symbolisation)
'written' Medium process Agent
implying
'spoken' enhancing clause complex
45
3.4. Halliday summary
from The Language of Science
& Complementarities in Language
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
3.5 Derivation and grammatical metaphor
55
We can treat nominalisation at the level of grammar
(syntax if you will) as a grammatical resource for
deriving nouns from other word classes -
e.g. nouns from verbs (transform/transformation)
transform  transformation
or nouns from adjectives (free/freedom)
free  freedom
56
As a second step we can ask how this resource may or may
not evolve to affect the relationship between discourse
semantics and lexicogrammar.
For example, if we derive runner from run, we have a
nominalisation that refers to a participant which operates as
a human entity in semantic figures of various kinds (the
runner won, the runner said... , the runner was tired); a
runner is someone who runs, not a process.
The grammar and semantics match since we have a
semantic entity realised by a noun.
57
By the same token, if we derive a verb from a noun, so we can talk
about texting someone, we have a verbalisation (to text) realising a
semantic process; texting is the process of sending a written
message via a mobile phone, not a participant.
The semantics and grammar match again because we have a
process realised by a verb.
58
[Mike Carlton SMH August 16, 2008]
Somehow, the Olympic Games are not doing it for me this time
around.
All the usual stuff is in place. The opening sarah-moany was the
most extravagant spectacle ever. Our silvery-blue team uniforms
were a welcome change from green and gold, which - seditious
though it may be to say so - simply don't work as colours
together.
We are racking up the medal tally at a satisfactory rate, oi oi oi.
Libby Trickett seems to have grown an extra row of pearly white
teeth since her marriage. And the television commentary has
been as doggedly banal as you could hope for. It is always a
delight to hear those two verbs to medal and to podium get a
workout. As in "Jessica medalled in this event in Athens and is
hoping to podium again here in Beijing." All very emotional, as
they keep assuring us, although they never specify exactly which
emotion.
59
It is these matching relations between discourse semantics and
lexicogrammar that Halliday refers to as congruent (e.g. Halliday
& Matthiessen 1999, 2004).
This congruent relation, for the clause the runner texted his
manager is outlined below.
semantics
grammar
participant
the runner
nominal
process
texted
verbal
participant
his manager
nominal
60
Contrast...
An incongruent relation, for the clause their poor play led to their
elimination...
semantics
grammar
process
Their poor
play
nominal
cause
led to
verbal
process
their
elimination
nominal
61
In his studies of the evolution of scientific English, however,
Halliday notes that in writing a language may come to deploy
derivation in ways that scramble a congruent relationship between
semantics and grammar.
So when Billig writes that their argument is made through the use
of nominalisation, he realises semantic processes of 'arguing',
'using' and 'nominalising' as nouns (instead of verbs), and the logical
connection between them through a preposition (instead of a
conjunction).
In this case the semantics and grammar don't match, but are in
tension with one another - a tension we can release by rephrasing
Billig in congruent discourse, e.g. they argued by using language
which nominalised verbs.
62
Halliday (e.g. 2004) refers to this phylogenetic development as
grammatical metaphor, in this case ideational metaphor (since it
involves processes, participants and causal relations between
them).
This incongruent relation, for Billig's clause, is outlined below.
semantics process
process manner
the argument is made through
grammar nominal
verbal
process [[process]]
the use of
nominalisation
preposition nominal
63
As we can see, nominalisation (and derivation in general) is a
resource for extending the lexical resources of a language.
Grammatical metaphor on the other hand is a resource for
scrambling, within limits, the realisation relationship between
semantics and grammar and so indefinitely extending a
language's meaning potential.
This is much more than a vocabulary building exercise. It allows
writers, and people who learn to speak writing, to mean more
than one thing at once.
64
Because of the tension between semantics and grammar there are
two levels of meaning involved, not one, with one symbolising
the other, in a figure to ground relation.
For Billig, grammatically speaking, one thing (the argument) is
created by means of another one (the use of nominalisation);
at the same time, sufficiently literate speakers recognize that he is
symbolising an additional layer of meaning comprising the
various processes involved in someone deriving nouns and using
them to argue with.
65
Roman Holiday 1 9 53 Paramont Pict ures. ( Audr ey Hepburn & Gregory Peck; Eddie Albert) .
Produced and Direct ed by William Wyler. [ CIC 7 7 34 1 , dist ribut ed in Aust ralia by Rainbow
Product s Lt d]
Journ alist, cameraman pal, ‘incognit o’ princess… (Journa list t alking t o pal, gett ing rid of
him t o develop some sensat ional compromising pict ures he has t aken of journa list wi t h
incognit o princess)
( J): W ell, I guess uh Irving has t o go now .
(Irving) : I do?
( J): Yes, you kn ow th at big business deve lopm ent
have to at t end t o.
of yours th at you
(I) : Ah … Oh, th e deve lopm ent.
J: Yes, c an’t af f ord not to ta ke care of th at.
(I) : Yeah. I’ ll see you lat er, Smi tt y. ( shaking hands)
( S): Good luck w it h t he new deve lopm ent.
(I) : Tha nks.
66
Muller, M 1 9 99 A W alk Throu gh t he Fire ( A Sharon McCone My ste ry ). London: The
W omen’s Press.
( Sharon on th e phone with Hy, af t er a shoot ing at a f ilm shoot )
I considered. “Th at d epends. D’ you know w here Tanner is?”
“ He had a chart er at noon, should be back by one-th irt y.”
“ Th en I t hink I’ ll s to p i n to s ee him. Glenna’ll drop m e th ere, I’ m going t o
have a busy day, so I’ ll see you w henever. Glenna can give you her
impressions of what happened at t he shoot w hen she get s to th e
house.”
The shoot.
The shooting.
I glanced at Glenna. Th e irony of it hadn’t been lo st on eith er of us. [p
60]
67
4. Historical explanation
68
- explaining...
In history, reasoning is typically realised within rather than between
clauses; events are nominalised and related to one another via agency
and circumstantiation.
e.g.
The outflow of Vietnamese boat people throughout the region
gave rise to
great moral dilem mas in the implementation of government policies
69
Realising cause inside the clause enables hist orians t o fine tune causality by deploying verbs
which elsewhere literally construe material and verbal activity (argue, act, attract, spark) but
here enact finely differentiated types of cause and effect relations. This indefinitely enhances
hist oriansÕresources for explaining how one event affects another and is one important sense in
which writ ten language elaborates the meaning potential of a language.
Nominal, prepositional and verbal realisations of cause inside the clause are typical of hist orical
accounts (and of explanations as we shall see below).
Manne begins text [3.8] in just these termsÉ
The Howard governmentÕs u n will i n gn e sst o apologise
de termi n e d
the nature of its re spon set o other recommendations contained in Bringing them hom e.
70
cause inside the clause
[3.8]
[7] The Howard governmentÕsunwillingness to apologise determined the nature of its response toother
recommendations contained in Bringing the
m home.
Because it refused to consider the present generation of Australians legally or morally responsible for the mistakes of
the past,
it refu sed altogeth er Bringing them homeÕ
s recommendation for financial compensation for members of the stolen
generations.
Because it thought thepolicies of child removal had been lawful and well-intentioned,
it treated almost with contempt the arguments in Bringing ht em home which suggested that in removing Aboriginal
children from their families by force previous Austr alian governments had committed serious violationsof the
human rights treaties they had signed or even acts of genocid e.
Because, nonetheless, it accepted that the Aboriginal children who had been taken from th eir families had suffered
seriousharm
it was willing to allocate modest sums to assist members of the stolen generations with psychological counselling,
fam ily reunion, cultural projects, oral histories and so on.
cause between clauses
71
causal verbs (circumstantial relation):
The wide reporting of the violence
had caused
concern to grow among the politically powerful missionary societies in Britain
The narrow selection of sources
results in
a profound ignorance of the basics of Van Diemanian eco nomy, society and...
which in turn
leads
to a series of elementary errors.
The wide reporting of the violence
had caused
concern to grow among the politically powerful missionary societies in Britain
72
Pushing this one step further, nominalising the causal connection as impact:
Only when the level of killing became such a prominent public issue from 1827
onwards, with such a dramatic impact on profit, colonisation and the operation of
the penal system, did Arthur change tack
(cf. the level of killing impacted on profit etc .):
the level of killing Éf rom 1827 onwards
with such a dramatic impact on
profit, colonisation and the operation of the penal system
73
- co-opted action verbs (taking advantage of Agent Process Medium structure)
The over-reliance on the governmentÕsown records
grosslydistorts
WindschuttleÕs understandingof the realities of frontier life for two reasons.
Ôvery consi
derable difficulties
arise f rom
the insufficiency of stationeryÕ.
Government record keeping
improves somewhat
with the arrival of Sorrell in 1817
the detention in remote places
were contributing to
more regular bad decision making at the primary stage
the savings from not holdingunlawful arrivals in protracted detentionÉ
could be devoted to
increased surveillance of all overstayers in the commun ity
This (= increased surveillance of all overstayers in the community)
would f acilitate
the orderly departure from Australia of overstayers
74
5. Ideational metaphor in science
5.1 explaining
75
Warm fronts. When a warm air stream
meets a colder air mass, the warm air, being
less dense, slides up over the cold air and the
temperature falls. Condensation generally
ensues. The surface between the two air
masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is
the case for a cold front. Warm fronts are rare
in Australia.
The approach of a warm front is heralded by
the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds,
known as cirrus cloud. As the front
approaches, the clouds become lower and
thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain
clouds. The weather usually clears quickly
after the front has passed. However, a warm
front is commonly followed, after an interval
which may be anything up to a day or more,
by a cold front. [Mesel 1963. 7.7]
Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively
cold, dense air tends to move along close
to the ground as it flows towards regions
in which warmer, less dense, air is rising.
This rising air becomes cooler for the
reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is
humid condensation of water vapour will
take place. The resulting clouds are
usually of the cumulous type. The front
edge of the cold air mass is known as a
cold front. Much of the rain that falls in
Australia occurs as a result of cold front
conditions.
Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes
uplift and condensation in a warmer,
humid, air mass.
The arrival of a cold front is marked by a
sharp drop in temperature and a sudden
change of the wind direction.
76
- temporal relations
Warm fronts. When a warm air stream
meets a colder air mass, the warm air, being
less dense, slides up over the cold air and the
temperature falls. Condensation generally
ensues. The surface between the two air
masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is
the case for a cold front. Warm fronts are rare
in Australia.
The approach of a warm front is heralded by
the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds,
known as cirrus cloud. As the front
approaches, the clouds become lower and
thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain
clouds. The weather usually clears quickly
after the front has passed. However, a warm
front is commonly followed, after an interval
which may be anything up to a day or more,
by a cold front. [Mesel 1963. 7.7]
- causal relations
Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively
cold, dense air tends to move along close
to the ground as it flows towards regions
in which warmer, less dense, air is rising.
This rising air becomes cooler for the
reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is
humid condensation of water vapour will
take place. The resulting clouds are
usually of the cumulous type. The front
edge of the cold air mass is known as a
cold front. Much of the rain that falls in
Australia occurs as a result of cold front
conditions.
Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes
uplift and condensation in a warmer,
humid, air mass.
The arrival of a cold front is marked by a
sharp drop in temperature and a sudden
change of the wind direction.
77
- genres may construe comparable knowledge differently!
- as sequential
explanation
- as causal
explanation
78
Warm fronts. When a warm air stream meets a
colder air mass, the warm air, being less dense,
slides up over the cold air and the temperature
falls. Condensation generally ensues. The
surface between the two air masses is inclined at
a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front.
Warm fronts are rare in Australia.
The approach of a warm front is heralded by the
appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, known
as cirrus cloud. As the front approaches, the
clouds become lower and thicker, culminating in
masses of heavy rain clouds. The weather
usually clears quickly after the front has passed.
However, a warm front is commonly followed,
after an interval which may be anything up to a
day or more, by a cold front. [Messel 1963. 7.7]
79
Warm fronts.
When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass,
the warm air, <<...being less dense>>, slides up over the cold
air
being less dense
and the temperature falls.
Condensation generally ensues.
The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller
angle than is the case for a cold front.
Warm fronts are rare in Australia.
80
Warm fronts.
When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass,
the warm air, <<...being less dense>>, slides up over the cold
air
being less dense
and the temperature falls.
Condensation generally ensues.
The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller
angle than is the case for a cold front.
Warm fronts are rare in Australia.
81
‘condensation’ as a noun
Condensation generally ensues.
Then water vapour generally condenses.
‘condensation’ as a verb
82
The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of
high, white, wispy clouds,
known as cirrus cloud.
As the front approaches,
the clouds become lower and thicker,
culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds.
The weather usually clears quickly
after the front has passed.
However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval
[[which may be anything up to a day or more]], by a cold front.
83
‘approaching’ as a noun
The approach of a warm front is heralded by ...
As the front approaches,
‘approaching’ as a verb
84
The approach of a warm front is heralded by the
appearance of high, white, wispy clouds,
high, white, wispy clouds appear
85
nouns affecting nouns (inside a clause)
The approach of a warm front
is heralded
by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds,
High, white, wispy clouds appear
and so (we know that) a warm front is approaching
processes leading on to processes (between clauses)
86
Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air
tends to move along close to the ground as it flows
towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is
rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons
mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of
water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are
usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the
cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the
rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold
front conditions.
Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and
condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.
The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in
temperature and a sudden change of the wind
direction.
87
Cold fronts.
A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the
ground
as it flows towards regions [[in which warmer, less dense, air is rising.]]
This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier,
and if it is humid
condensation of water vapour will take place.
The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type.
The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front.
Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front
conditions.
Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer,
humid, air mass.
The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a
sudden change of the wind direction.
88
The arrival of a cold front
is marked
by a sharp drop in temperature
and a sudden change of the wind direction.
When the cold front arrives
the temperature drops sharply
and the wind changes direction suddenly
89
Condensation of water vapour will take place.
90
Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and
condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.
91
Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air
tends to move along close to the ground as it flows
towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is
rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons
mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of
water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are
usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the
cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the
rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold
front conditions.
Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and
condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.
The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in
temperature and a sudden change of the wind
direction.
92
- causality between clauses...
if it is humid
condensation of water vapour will take place.
93
- causality within clauses...
noun
This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons
mentioned earlier,
adjectival
The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type.
The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold
front.
Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs
as a result of cold front conditions.
prepositional
verb
Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and
condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.
94
Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air
tends to move along close to the ground as it flows
towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is
rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons
mentioned earlier,
A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to
move along close to the ground as it flows towards
regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This
rising air becomes cooler because ‘the temperature
of an expanding air mass falls because it uses heat
energy to expand’
95
Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air
tends to move along close to the ground as it flows
towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is
rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons
mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of
water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are
usually of the cumulous type.
This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons
mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of
water vapour will take place. So usually cumulous
clouds form.
96
Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air
tends to move along close to the ground as it flows
towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is
rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons
mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of
water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are
usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the
cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the
rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold
front conditions.
This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons
mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of
water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are
usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the
cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the
rain that falls in Australia occurs because cold front
conditions occur.
97
Cold fronts. ...
Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and
condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.
Fig. 7.7 shows how a warmer, humid air mass rises
and (water vapour) condenses because a cold front
(arrives).
98
- evidence of...
The arrival of a cold front
is marked (cf. is heralded)
by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change
of the wind direction.
99
Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air
tends to move along close to the ground as it flows
towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is
rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons
mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of
water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are
usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the
cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the
rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold
front conditions.
Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and
condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.
The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in
temperature and a sudden change of the wind
direction.
100
5. Ideational metaphor in science
5.2 defining
101
- some nominalised technical terms:
The amount of water vapour present in a sample of
air is called the humidity.
The amount of water vapour actually present in the
air, expressed as a percentage of the amount
needed to saturate it at its temperature, is called
the relative humidity.
In a low pressure area - often called a depression
or simply a “low”, ...
102
- definitions relate one ‘thing’ to another:
The amount of water vapour present in a sample of air
is called
the humidity.
The amount of water vapour actually present in the air, expressed as
a percentage of the amount needed to saturate it at its temperature,
is called
the relative humidity.
In a low pressure area often called
a depression or simply a “low”, ...
103
- either or both sides of a definition may involve
nominalisation
This curving of the waves which
is called
diffraction
this bumping of the electrons into atoms
forms
a friction or resistance to the passage of
electrons through the wire
104
- another nominalised definition...
Let us examine what happens when a tuning fork vibrates.
As the prong of the fork moves outwards it gives a kick to the air
particles next to it. These bunch together and in turn pass the
kick to those next to them...
As the prong moves backwards it leaves a space where the air
particles are spread further apart than they were before and the
bunched up particles bounce back into this space...
On its next outward movement the prong bunches up more of the
particles. This is repeated every time the prongs vibrate. Very
quickly a series of bunches, or compressions and spaces, or
rarefactions, spreads out from the tuning fork. These make up
the sound wave...
A sound wave
is often referred to
as a compression wave...
105
106
If we look at how a tuning fork produces sound (b) we can
learn just what sound is. (c) By looking closely at one of the
prongs (d) you can see that it is moving to and fro (vibrating).
(e) As the prong moves outwards (f) it squashes, or
compresses, the surrounding air. (g) The particles of air are
pushed outwards (h) crowding against and bashing into their
neighbours (i) before they bounce back. (j) The neighbouring
air particles are then pushed out (k) to hit the next air
particles and so on. (l) This region of slightly 'squashed'
together air moving out from the prong is called a
compression. (m) When the prong of the tuning fork moves
back again (n) the rebounding air particles move back into the
space that is left. (o) This region where the air goes 'thinner'
is called a rarefaction (p) and also moves outwards. (q) The
particles of air move to and fro in the same direction in which
the wave moves. (r) Thus sound is a compression wave that
can be heard. (Heffernan & Learmonth 1982:127)
107
5. Ideational metaphor in science
5.3 classifying
108
Shapes of Magnets
(cloze exercise - building field)
Magnets are of many shapes, Some are
cylindrical rods and some are rectangular bars.
They are called bar magnets. Some are Ushaped. Some are called 'horse-shoe magnets'
because they look like hore-shoes.
109
Types of magnets (cloze exercise - building field)
There are two kinds of magnets: temporary magnets and
permanent magnets. Temporary magnets are usually made of
iron and are able to keep their magnetism for a short time.
Permanent magnets are usually made of steel and are able to
keep their magnetism for a long time.
Magnets must be treated gently. If a magnet is struck with a
hard object, or falls on the ground, then the magnetic particles
inside it will become jumbled and it will become weaker.
Similarly, heating a magnet will also make it weaker.
110
As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, (b) we can
place most substances into one of two groups. (c) The first
group contains materials with many electrons that are free to
move. (d) These materials are called conductors (e) because
they readily carry or conduct electric currents. (f) Conductors
are mostly metals (g) but also include graphite. (h) The
second group contains materials with very few electrons that
are free to move. (i) These materials are called
nonconductors (j) and are very poor conductors of electricity.
(k) Nonconductors can be used to prevent charge from going
where it is not wanted. (l) Hence they are also called
insulators. (m) Some common insulators are glass, rubber,
plastic and air. (n) There are a few materials, such as
germanium and silicon, called semiconductors. (o) Their
ability to conduct electricity is intermediate between
conductors and insulators. (p) Semiconductors have played
an important role in modern electronics. (Heffernan &
Learmonth 1983:212)
111
112
As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, (b) we
can place most substances into one of two groups. (c) The
first group contains materials with many electrons that are free
to move. (d) These materials are called conductors (e)
because they readily carry or conduct electric currents. (f)
Conductors are mostly metals (g) but also include graphite.
(h) The second group contains materials with very few
electrons that are free to move. (i) These materials are called
nonconductors (j) and are very poor conductors of electricity.
(k) Nonconductors can be used to prevent charge from going
where it is not wanted. (l) Hence they are also called
insulators. (m) Some common insulators are glass, rubber,
plastic and air. (n) There are a few materials, such as
germanium and silicon, called semiconductors. (o) Their
ability to conduct electricity is intermediate between
conductors and insulators. (p) Semiconductors have played
an important role in modern electronics. (Heffernan &
Learmonth 1983:212)
113
As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, we can
place most substances into one of two groups.
These materials are called conductors because they readily
carry or conduct electric currents.
These materials are called nonconductors and are very poor
conductors of electricity.
There are a few materials, such as germanium and silicon,
called semiconductors. Their ability to conduct electricity
is intermediate between conductors and insulators.
114
‘ability’ as a verb (can or can’t):
substances can carry electricity
substances can’t carry electricity
‘ability’ as a noun (various degrees):
a low ability to carry electricity
an intermediate ability to carry electricity
a high ability to carry electricity
115
6. Interpersonal metaphors
6.1 basic mood and modality metaphors
116
I NT ERPERSO NA L
-
MET AP HOR
me t aphors of mood (so-called ‘indire ct speech act s’)
que st ioning
( ‘demand f or inf ormatio n’)
realised directly :
W hat ’s your name ?
[inter rogat iv e: wh mood]
realised indirectly :
And y ou are… ?
[declarat iv e mood]
Tell me y our name.
[imperat iv e mood]
117
Frank:
Rit a:
And you are...?
I'm a what.
Frank:
Rit a:
Frank:
Rit a:
Frank:
Rit a:
Frank:
Pardon.
What ?
And you are...? What is your name?
Me f irst name?
Well, t hat wou ld at least const it ut e some sort of st art, wou ldn't it?
Rit a.
Rit a. [ Russell, W 19 85 Educat ing Rit a. London: Longman]
118
commanding
( ‘demand f or goods or service’)
realised direct ly :
Give me a walnut bun.
[ imperat ive mood]
realised indirect ly :
Could you giv e me a walnut bun?
[ interro gativ e: polar mood]
I wonder if I could hav e a walnut bun.
[ declarat iv e mood]
119
120
The metaphor interpretation predicts that (i) both mood and
speech function can be responded to, typically in that order
(figure then ground); (ii)mood can be negotiated literally, at face
value; (iii) grammar will symbolise semantics, by factoring out
and redistributing the meaning of a speech function; (iv) the
number of indirect realisations is not closed, though indefinitely
constrained by (iii).
Can you please detain them?
- Yes, alright. (i)
Can you please detain them?
- I can but I won’t. (ii)
Can/could/will/would you please detain them. (iii)
I’m wondering if you could detain them. (iii)
I’d like you to detain them please. (iii)
If you could just detain them… (iii)
etc. (iv)
121
- met aphors of modalit y ( ‘indirect ’ probabilit y, inclinat ion, obligat ion…)
[ Dr Wat son wi t h Sherlo ck Holmes in The Valley of Fear]
" I'm inclined to think---" said I.
" I should do so," Sherlock Holmes rema rked impat ient ly .
I b elieve th at I am one of th e most long- suf f ering of m ort als; but I' ll a dmi t
th at I w as annoyed at t he sardonic int errupt ion. "Really, Holmes," said I
severely , "yo u are a litt le t rying at t imes." [ Doyle 1 9 81 : 7 6 9]
122
- degrees of commitment
(recommitting experiential meaning in modality metaphor)
When laughter can be the best medicine
This was followed by Kapokie Tapokie from Pukekohe's phone
message: "Hey bro. Heard the one about a lie detector being installed
on the Wallabies bus? A centre hooked himself up and said, 'I think
we have the best defence in the world'. The detector went off. A
front-rower then hooked himself up and said, 'I think I'm the best
player in the world'. The detector went off. A second-rower said, 'I
think...' and the detector went off. Good one. eh! Eh! You there?"
[Monday Maul Greg Crowden SMH 14/5/2007]
123
modal verbs
will, w ould, can, could, may, mi ght, shall, should, must ; ought t o, used to;
need, dare [ cf . n eeds t o, dares t o, i s to, h as to ; has got to, h ad b ett er...]
modal adverbs
probably , presuma bly , predict ably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably ,
assuredly, surely, cert ainly, obv iously... ; some ti me s, occasionally, usually ,
always, s eldom, never...
re late d com plex verbal expressions ( be + adjective or passive verb)
be willing t o, be prepared t o, be able to , be a nxious to , be det ermi ned to,
be keen t o, be reluct ant to.. . ; be allo w ed t o, be permitt ed to , b e ent it led
to , be suppo sed t o, be expect ed to, b e requir ed t o, be int ended t o, be
desig nat ed t o, be o bliged to, b e pr ohibit ed f rom, be desired t o...
124
direct modalisation
indirect modalisation
125
126
When laughter can be the best medicine
This was followed by Kapokie Tapokie from Pukekohe's phone
message: "Hey bro. Heard the one about a lie detector being installed
on the Wallabies bus? A centre hooked himself up and said, 'I think
we have the best defence in the world'. The detector went off. A
front-rower then hooked himself up and said, 'I think I'm the best
player in the world'. The detector went off. A second-rower said, 'I
think...' and the detector went off. Good one. eh! Eh! You there?"
[Monday Maul Greg Crowden SMH 14/5/2007]
127
- su bje c t ive /obje c t ive m e t a p h o rs…
Probab ilit y
mo da lise
su b je c tify
obj e c tify
Obl ig a tio n
mo dulat e
su b je c tify
obj e c tify
Unmar ked re alis a tio n
I can ’ t b ear it, can I?
Met aph or
I do n’ t t hink I can bear i t, can I?
It’ s n o t likely I can bear i t, ca n I?
Unmar ked re alis a tio n
You sho uld g et it fix ed .
Met aph or
I’d like y ou to g e t it fix ed.
It’ s a d visable y o u g e t it fixe d.
128
- ‘expanded’ negot iabilit y
‘I don’t suppose th ere’s any chance I might be able to get an ext ension
on m y essay…’
-
you c an’t, no …
cert ainly not, no …
not a chance, no…
I don’t t hink so, I’ m sorry…
[ able]
[ mi ght ]
[ chance]
[I don’t sup pose]
129
6.2 More on modality
130
131
- orientation/manifestation
- Is he?
132
133
134
135
objective
explicit
subjective
136
- value
TYPE
low value
median value
high value
PROBABILIT Y
possibly
probably
cert ainly
USUALITY
somet imes
usually
always
INCLINAT ION
be wil ling t o
be keen t o
be determ ined t o
OBLIGATION
be allowe d t o
be supposed t o
be required t o
ABILITY
[b e able t o]
-
-
Table 1 : Low , median and hig h va lued realisat io ns f or modalit y t ypes
137
- value
is
median
isn’t
138
- type
Modalisat ion ( epist emic m odalit y in f orma l sema nt ics) i s concerned with
assessing st at es of know ledge. Th e tw o ke y syst ems are probabilit y
( how sure?) a nd usualit y (how o f t en?). Their im plicit obj ect ive f orm of
realisat ion involves modal adv erbs, w hich m ay be used to reinf orce th e
value of an accompanying modal verb as in T able 2 .
value
high
median
low
probability
usualit y
must cert ainly
must always
wou ld probably
wou ld usually
might possibly
might somet imes
139
140
Modulat ion ( deont ic m odalit y in f orma l sema nt ics) i s concerned w ith
assessing commit me nt to act ion. Th e t w o key syst ems are inclinat ion
( how w illing?) an d obligat ion (how obliged?) . Th eir imp licit obje ct ive f orm
of realisat ion involves a periphrast ic f orm of th e verbal group - t he verb
be plus an adject ive or pa ssive part iciple as out lined in Table 3. The be
plus adje ct ive f orms realise inclinat ion, with th e adject ive allowing
submodif icat ion ( e.g. I'm very det ermined, rath er keen, quit e willing ); th e
be plus passive part iciple f orms realise obligat ion, w hich is not op en to
grading of th is kind ( * I'm v ery required to ) .
value
high
median
low
inclination
obligat ion
must , be det erm ined t o
must , be requir ed t o
wi ll, be keen t o
wi ll, be supposed t o
may, be wi lling t o
may, be allow ed t o
141
142
explicit subjective = modalisation metaphor
143
144
7. Unpacking metaphors
145
146
- not much nominalisation...
Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
If we connect a battery across a body, there is a movement of free electrons towards the
positive end. This movement of electrons is an electric current. All materials can be
classified into three groups according to how readily they permit an electric current to flow.
These are: conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
In the first category are substances which provide an easy path for an electric current. All
metals are conductors, however some metals do not conduct well. Manganin, for example,
is a poor conductor. Copper is a good conductor, therefore it is widely used for cables. A
non-metal which conducts well is carbon. Salt water is an example of a liquid conductor.
A material which does not easily release electrons is called an insulator. Rubber, nylon,
porcelain are all insulators. There are no perfect insulators. All insulators will allow some
flow of electrons, however this can usually be ignored because the flow they permit is so
small.
Semiconductors are midway between conductors and insulators. Under certain conditions
they allow a current to flow easily but under others they behave as insulators. Germanium
and silicon are semiconductors. Mixtures of certain metallic oxides also act as
semiconductors. These are known as thermistors. The resistance of thermistors falls
rapidly as their temperature rises. They are therefore used in temperature-sensing devices.
147
(Glendinning 1980:1)
148
- much more nominalisation...
Conductors and insulators
All the practical effects of electricity are produced by the movement of electrons.
In electrical work generally, materials can be grouped as either conductors or
insulators. As a general definition a conductor has the ability to conduct electrons
easily, while an insulator tends to prevent the flow of electrons. The production
of charges as described in Section 2.1 is more readily demonstrated because the
rods used are made of materials that are poor conductors. Most metals are good
conductors and, with one or two exceptions, most non-metals are poor conductors
(insulators).
Whether a material is a good or bad conductor cannot be decided in some
arbitrary fashion, because there is no sharp dividing line. All materials have some
opposition to the movement of electrons and the degree of opposition governs the
use of the material. For example, an electric light receives electricity by means of
a good conductor (copper) and to ensure the electrons flow only where desired,
the copper wires are encased in a plastic sheathing (a poor conductor or a good
insulator). The circumstances governing a material's use also have an effect on
the selection.
149
Some salts are insulators when solid but are good conductors when
molten. Neon is an insulator when not put under electrical stress, but
becomes a conductor when the applied voltage is high enough to ionise
the gas.
It is important to realise that there are degrees of conductivity. Under
normal everyday usage, there is no perfect conductor, nor is there a perfect
insulator. In addition to this there are materials in which the degree can be
varied. These are called semi-conductors and in the highly refined state
are very poor conductors (i.e. good insulators). As their content of
impurities is increased, their ability to conduct electrons also increases.
Semiconductors are first purified and then "doped" to the required degree
of impurity to control the rate of flow of electrons through them.
Insulators that are porous and capable of absorbing moisture must be
regarded with caution because as they become damp their insulating
qualities decrease markedly. These materials (e.g. wood) are often
impregnated with varnish to prevent the absorption of moisture. (Jenneson
1980:23.)
150
The Abstract summarises relationships between the hardness of these steels, and
their resistance to abras ive wear. A direct linear relationship between hardness and
wear res istance was found for some steels, but for not for others. The study showed
that resistance to wear varied with both carbo n content and micro-structure. And
the type of wear also varied with both carbon content and micro-structure.
[5:16] A study of the abrasive wear of carbon steels
Abstract
The abras ive wear behaviour of 0.01%-1.4% carbo n steels heat treated to various
micro-structures and hardnesses was studied using a pin-on-drum machine. For
constant hardness and carbo n content less than 1.0%, the results show that bainite
had the hardest wear resistance, followed by tempered martensite and annealed
structures. For 1.2% steel, the annealed structure had wear resistance superior to the
quenched and tempered structure and spheroidized structure. Additionally the
relationship between relative wear resistance and hardness was linear for annealed
steels, but the slope for hypoeutectoid steels was lower than for hypereutectoid
steels. A non-linear relationship between wear resistance and hardness of tempered
martensite was confirmed for both 0.38% and 0.75% steels. This behaviour
indicates that abras ive wear resistance is not simply related to the hardness of
materials, but is determined also by the microstructure and fracture properties.
Microscop ical studies showed the dominant wear mechanism to be microcutting
with signifi cant microploughing for very low carbo n hypoeutectoid steel, and
substantial crack ing and spalling in high er carbo n steels and in quenched and low
temperature tempered medium carbo n steels.
151
Introduction
Numerous empirical observations between abras ive wear of carbo n steels and both
hardness and carbo n content have been established [1-5]. Kruschov and Babichev
[1-3] proposed a linear relationship between wear resistance and hardness, and also
an additive rule of wear resistance for structurally inhomogeneous materials. For
tempered structures, Larsen-Badse and Mathew [5] and Larsen-Badse [6] sugg ested
that wear resistance should be a linear function of the logarithm of the absolute
tempering temperature above 2500C and the square root of distance between the
dispersed carbides. The volume fraction of pearlite is evidently important in
controlling the wear of annealed carbo n steels, and it has been agreed [7, 8] that
wear res istance is, in fact, proportional to this volume fraction in hypoeutectoid
steels.
...
Experimental details
...
The microstructures of the specimen materials were examined using optical
microscop y. Wear mechanisms were elucidated by scanning electron microscop y
of the wear debris, wear surface topography and subsurface. The subsurface was
exposed by partially removing and polishing the sligh tly curved surface formed by
the geometry of the drum. Precipitated carbides were studied using transmission
electron microscopy, and retained austenite was measured using computer aided
image analysis and by linear intercept analysis.
152
Results and Discussion
...
The results presented in Figs 1-3 indicate that the grain boundary allotriomorphs of
cementite and the cementite in pearlite have different effects with increas ing
hardness and wear resistance. Also it is clear that a linear relationship between
wear res istance and hardness can exist only for steels having similar
microstructural charact eristics and, for this condition, hardness can be used as a
predictor of wear resistance.
Therefore, for the steels with the same type of annealed structures, the linear
relationship between relative wear resistance, e, and hardness, HV, can be
expressed as
e = a + b HV
where a and b are co nstants. This relationship is a modified form of the equation
e = b HV
proposed by Kruschov and Babichev,
...
153
Conclusions
(1) For annealed steels, both the wear resistance and hardness were linearly related
to carbon content with different slopes for hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels.
Similarly the the slope of the linear relationships between relative wear resistance
and hardness was different for hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels. Thus
hardness can be used as a predictor of wear resistance only for annealed steels with
the same type of microstructure.
...
154
8. Construing knowledge
- across the curriculum...
155
history:
This most successful phase of the Long March owes a great deal to the
diplomatic skills of Zhou Enlai and to the bravery of the rearguard.
English:
Click is about a young girl who has run away from reality and its
unhappiness and death that it confronted her with.
economics:
An increase in consumer demand will result in high prices owing to a
shortage in domestic supply.
156
science:
Thus sound is a compression wave that can be heard.
As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, (b) we can
place most substances into one of two groups.
geography:
The effects of industrialisation and the need of more land due to the
growth of population seriously affected wildlife and still is today
already...
157
In terms of a dynamic perspective on language, research suggests that
direct realisations tend to precede grammtically metaphorical ones…
- in the evolution of a culture
(with the emergence of a writing system as a crucial step)
- in the development of the individual
(with secondary schooling as transitional)
- and in unfolding discourse
(with more direct textures tending to precede more metaphorical ones)
Learning to access disciplinary knowledge in secondary
school thus depends on control of this resource for
meaning.
158
Christie, F & J R Martin 2007 Knowledge Structure: functional linguistic and
sociological perspectives (Ed. F Christie & J R Martin). London: Continuum.
Coffin, C 2006 Historical Discourse: the language of time, cause and evaluation.
London; Continuum.
Halliday, M A K 1998 Things and relations: regrammaticising experience as technical
knowledge. in Martin & Veel. 185-235.
Halliday, M A K 2004 The Language of Science. London: Continuum (Vol 5 in the
Collected Works of M A K Halliday J Webster Ed.). London: Continuum.
Halliday, M A K 2008 Complementarities in Language. Beijing: Commercial Press.
Halliday, M A K & J R Martin 1993 Writing Science: literacy and discursive power.
London: Falmer (Critical Perspectives on Literacy and Education).
Halliday, M A K & C M I M Matthiessen 1999 Construing Experience through
Language: a language-based approach to cognition. London: Cassell.
Halliday, M A K & C M I M Matthiessen 2004 An Introduction to Functional Grammar.
(3rd Edition) London: Arnold.
159
Martin, J R 1993b Technology, bureaucracy and schooling: discursive
resources and control. Cultural Dynamics 6.1. 84-130.
Martin, J R & David Rose 2003 Working with Discourse: meaning beyond
the clause. London: Continuum.
Martin, J R & R Veel [Eds.] 1998 Reading Science: critical and functional
perspectives on discourses of science. London: Routledge.
Martin, J R & R Wodak [Eds.] 2003 Re/reading the past: critical and
functional perspectives on discourses of history (Ed. J R Martin & R
Wodak) Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Simon-Vandenbergen, A-M, M Taverniers & L J Ravelli [Eds] 2003.
Metaphor: systemic and functional perspectives. Amsterdam: Benjamins
Wignell, P 2007 On the Discourse of Social Science. Darwin: Charles
Darwin University Press.
Zhu, Yongsheng 2008 Nominalisation, verbalisation and grammatical
metaphor. J Webster [Ed.] Meaning in Context: strategies for
implementing intelligent applications of language studies. London:
Continuum. 297-308.
160
161
Roman Holiday 1 9 53 Paramont Pict ures. ( Audr ey Hepburn & Gregory Peck; Eddie Albert) .
Produced and Direct ed by William Wyler. [ CIC 7 7 34 1 , dist ribut ed in Aust ralia by Rainbow
Product s Lt d]
Journ alist, cameraman pal, ‘incognit o’ princess… (Journa list t alking t o pal, gett ing rid of
him t o develop some sensat ional compromising pict ures he has t aken of journa list wi t h
incognit o princess)
( J): W ell, I guess uh Irving has t o go now .
(Irving) : I do?
( J): Yes, you kn ow th at big business deve lopm ent
have to at t end t o.
of yours th at you
(I) : Ah … Oh, th e deve lopm ent.
J: Yes, c an’t af f ord not to ta ke care of th at.
(I) : Yeah. I’ ll see you lat er, Smi tt y. ( shaking hands)
( S): Good luck w it h t he new deve lopm ent.
(I) : Tha nks.
162
Muller, M 1 9 99 A W alk Throu gh t he Fire ( A Sharon McCone My ste ry ). London: The
W omen’s Press.
( Sharon on th e phone with Hy, af t er a shoot ing at a f ilm shoot )
I considered. “Th at d epends. D’ you know w here Tanner is?”
“ He had a chart er at noon, should be back by one-th irt y.”
“ Th en I t hink I’ ll s to p i n to s ee him. Glenna’ll drop m e th ere, I’ m going t o
have a busy day, so I’ ll see you w henever. Glenna can give you her
impressions of what happened at t he shoot w hen she get s to th e
house.”
The shoot.
The shooting.
I glanced at Glenna. Th e irony of it hadn’t been lo st on eith er of us. [p
60]
163