Major Duties and Responsibilities of Central Bank

 Conducting monetary policy  Supervising and regulating depository institutions  Maintaining the stability of the financial system  Providing payment and other financial services to the government, the public, FIs and foreign official institutions 1

Functions Performed by the Central Banks

 Assistance in the Conduct of Monetary Policy  Supervision and Regulation  Government Services  New Currency Issue  Check Clearing  Wire Transfer Services  Research Services 2

Place of Central Bank in the Monetary System Central Bank Federal Reserve Sytem

Defines and regulates money supply Lender of last Resort

Other Banks

Banking System:

1. Creates money 2. Transfers money 3. Provides financial intermediation 4. Processes/clears checks First Bank

Facilitates transfer of money through check processing/clearing

Last Bank 3

Balance Sheet of the Federal Reserve (in billions of dollars, 2002) Assets Liabilities and Equity

Gold and foreign exchange $ 25.5 Depository institution reserves $ 17.5

SDR certificates 2.2 Vault cash of commercial banks 47.3

Treasury currency 33.2 Deposits due to federal government 7.1

Federal Reserve Float 0.0 Deposits due to rest of the world 0.1

FR loans to domestic banks 0.0 Currency outside banks 596.2

Security repurchase agreements 50.3 Miscellaneous liabilities 7.8

U.S. Treasury securities 551..7 FR Bank stock 7.2

U.S. government securities 0.0

Miscellaneous assets 20.3

Total assets $683.2 Total liabilities and equity $683.2

4

Objective of Monetary Policy

 To influence the amount of reserve in the banking system…  which affects interest rates and availability of credit and…  ultimately affects the levels of employment, output, prices and inflation 5

Money Stock

 There are a number of measures of a nation’s money stock (M).

 The narrowest measure is the sum of currency in circulation and the amount of transactions deposits (TD) in the banking system.

6

Money Multiplier

 Most nations require that a fraction of transactions deposits be held as reserves.

 The required fraction is determined by the reserve requirement (rr).

 This fraction determines the maximum change in the money stock that can result from a change in total reserves.

7

Money Multiplier

 Under the assumption that the monetary base is comprised of transactions deposits only, the multiplier is determined by the reserve requirement only.

 In this case, the money multiplier (m) is equal to 1 divided by the reserve requirement,  m = 1/rr.

8

Relating the Monetary Base and the Money Stock

 Under the assumptions above, we can write the money stock as the monetary base times the money multiplier.

M = m  MB = m(C + TR).

 The change in the money stock is expressed as  M = m(  C +  TR).

9

Example - BOJ Intervention

 Suppose the Bank of Japan (BOJ) intervenes to strengthen the yen by selling ¥1 million of US dollar reserves to the private banking system.

 This action reduces the foreign exchange reserves and total reserves component of the BOJ’s balance sheet.

10

BOJ Balance Sheet Assets FER -¥1 million Liabilities TR -¥1 million

Result: R ¥1 million, MB ¥1 million

11

BOJ Intervention

 Because the monetary base declined, so will the money stock.  Suppose the reserve requirement is 10 percent. The change in the money stock is  M = m(  DC +  FER),  M = (1/.10)( ¥1 million) = -¥10 million.

12

Monetary Policy Tools



Open Market Operations

 primary determinate of changes in excess reserves in the banking system impacting the size of the money supply and/or interest rates 

The Discount Rate

 the rate of interest Central Bank charge on emergency loans to depository institutions 

Reserve Requirements

 determine the minimum amount of reserve assets that depository institutions must maintain by law to back transaction deposits held as liabilities 13

Tools of Monetary Policy

Open Market Operations   To change Reserves To offset other factors affecting Reserves  Typically uses repos & reverse repos: Open market transactions to purchase gov. Securities with an aggrement that seller will repurchase them in a predetermined time period.

Advantages of Open Market Operations  1. Central Bank has complete control  2. Flexible and precise  3. Easily reversed  4. Implemented quickly 14

Open Market Operations

 Monetary Base = Currency + Reserves 

Open Market Purchase from Bank

The Banking System The Fed Assets Liabilities Assets Liabilities Securities - $100 Reserves + $100 Securities Reserves + $100

Result: R



$100, MB



$100

+$100 15

Open Market Operations

Open Market Purchase from Public Assets Public Liabilities Assets The Fed Liabilities Securities - $100 Deposits + $100 Securities + $100 Reserves +$100 Banking System Assets Liabilities Reserves Deposits + $100 + $100

Result: R



$100, MB



$100

16

Discount Rate

The rate on loans to depository instituions  Ambiguous effect on money supply  Signalling function: used to send a message to financial markets Lender of Last Resort Function 1. To prevent banking panics 2. To prevent non-bank financial panics  Moral Hazard Problem 17

Discount Loans

Banking System Assets Liabilities Reserves + $100 Discount loan + $100

Result: R



$100, MB



$100

The Fed Assets Liabilities Discount Reserves loan + $100 + $100 18

Reserve Requirements

 Advantages  1. Powerful effect on money supply  Disadvantages  1. Small changes have very large effect on MS  2. Raising reserve requirement ratio causes liquidity problems for banks  3. Frequent changes cause uncertainty for banks 19

Goals of Monetary Policy

Goals 1. Price Stability 2. High Employment 3. Economic Growth 4. Interest Rate Stability 5. Financial Market Stability 6. Foreign Exchange Market Stability  Goals often in conflict

“The primary objective of the Bank shall be to achieve and maintain price stability.”

Cental Bank of the Republic of Turkey 20

A. Price Stability  Unanticipated inflation leads to lender losses. Nominal contracts attempt to account for inflation.  Effort successful if monetary policy able to maintain steady rate of inflation.

B. High Employment  The movement of workers between jobs is referred to as frictional unemployment.  All unemployment beyond frictional unemployment is classified as unintended unemployment. Reduction in this area is the target of macroeconomic policy.

C. Economic Growth  Economic growth is enhanced by investment in technological advances in production.

 Encouragement of savings supplies funds that can be drawn upon for investment.

D. Interest Rate and Exchange Rate Stability  Volatile interest and exchange rates generate costs to lenders and borrowers. Unexpected changes that cause damage, making policy formulation difficult.

E. Conflicts Among Goals  Goals frequently cannot be separated from each other and often conflict. Costs must therefore be carefully weighed before policy implementation.

21

Impact of Monetary Policy on Various Economic Variables

Impact on Reserves Credit availability Money supply Interest rates Security prices

Expansionary Activities Contractionary Activities

22

Interest Rate

i’=8% i*=6% i’’=4%

Alternative Monetary Policies Interest Rate

M S’ M S i* = 6% M S

M D’ M D M D’’ Quantity of Money (in billions)

i’’= 5%

M D’ M D M D’’ Quantity of Money (in billions)

23

International Monetary Policies and Strategies

 1.

2.



Foreign Exchange Intervention

Controlled exchange rate regimes under ERBS Programs To stabilize the unstable FX market similar to open market purchases and sales of Treasury securities 24

Institutional Framework for a Credible Central Bank



Independence



Accountability



Transparency

25