shou

II (a) reanalysis metaphor analogy 寫說 .

想說 .

覺得說 Inner state III (a) pragmatic inference analogy 如果說 , 雖然說 , 除非說 Connector marker IV pragmatic inference analogy S-final complementizer III (b) reanalysis 我覺得徐淑媛好可憐說 S-final particle III (c) 這家麵包店的西點很好吃說 NTU 蘇以文 Hearsay, reportative pragmatic inference reanalysis Counter-expectation marker II (b) III (d) 我聽人家說過 , 說你有個女兒 給她人權 , 給她保障 , 說是民主

 ◦ ◦ syntactically. it can co-occur with modal verbs or aspect markers it must take either a nominal argument, including sentential object, or an adverbial complement

      Reanalysis Serialization Metaphor Metonymy Pragmatic inference Analogy

 Reanalysis: Change in the structure of an expression of class of expression that does not involve any immediate or intrinsic modification of its surface manifestation” (Langacker 1977: 58).

 Serialization: [A simple-minded definition] An event/state that one language codes as a simple clause with a single verb, is coded in another languages as complex clause with two or more verbs (Givon 1991:137).

  Metaphorical processes are processes of inference across conceptual boundaries, and are typically referred to in terms of “mappings” from one domain to another. They involve transfer from a basic, usually concrete, to a more abstract domain. (Hopper and Traugott 1993)

 Sweetser (1990) From Etymology to Pragmatics  Speech and intellectual activity are metaphorically referred to from the physical domain. Via metaphorical mappings involved in our cognitive and linguistic treatment of mental states and speech acts, we find that certain physical-state and motion verbs are likely sources for vocabulary of certain abstract areas of meaning.

  The essence resides in the possibility of establishing connections between entities which co-occur within a given conceptual structure. The entities need not be contiguous in any spatial sense. (Taylor 1995)

  considered to be a type of metonymy. restricted to the act of reference.  On this broader view, metonymy turns out to be one of the most fundamental processes of meaning extension, more basic, perhaps, even than metaphor. (Taylor 1995)

 Speakers operate along the paradigmatic axis and resort to existing constructions to create a new construction. (Hopper and Traugott 1993:56)

NTU 蘇以文

  From matrix verb shou to V shou , there are two verbs incorporated together, without apparent pause, meaning that they are perceived as one word. shou being adjacent to a verb, it shows high potential of co-lexicalization and co grammaticalization.

 Accordingly, two verbs has been perceived as one single simple event. As the two verbs conjoined, a rebracketing may occur. The original [V] [ shou ] has been reanalyzed as [V shou ], as in 講說 .

NTU 蘇以文

 說是民主    The loss of subject identity leads to less commitment of the reporter on what is reported, and the speaker, due to the lack of direct evidence, in turn expresses his/her doubt or surprise toward the proposition by the hearsay

shuo

說 as “a sentence-initial particle for counter expectation ” (Chang 1998: 117) In this development,

shuo

focus marker 是 usually cooccurs with the

shi

, indicating the disbelief (thought) of the speaker about the event heard.

 A clear metaphorical mapping involved.

source target mapping Concrete: speech Abstract: thought NTU 蘇以文

NTU 蘇以文

 The semantics of and finally can attach to epistemic connectives such as and so on.

shuo becomes even weaker 除非說，雖然說，如果說，

NTU 蘇以文

Wo shi juede shuo zheyang budui I is feel shuo this_way wrong “I think this is not right.”( 我是覺得說 ( 呢 ) ，這樣 不對 ) S _ V _ 1P _Cog V _ shuo shuo _ Complement _ Verb Complement

 “S + V +

shuo

+ COMP” develops into 1P+ cog+ shuo+ verb comp via a pragmatic inference.  And, cognitive verbs taking a complement such as share a similar paradigm with sentence final 覺得說，不知道說，

shuo

. and so on,

   ◦ ◦ 我是 [ 覺得 ][ 說 ] ，這樣不對 我是 [ 覺得說 ] ，這樣不對 ( 我是覺得 ) ， [ 這樣不對說 ] 1. Via reanalysis,

shuo

& the matrix V formed a unit 2. The unit then undergoes reanalysis:

Shuo

attaches to the complement and they become a new synt unit. ◦ 3. Gradually, the absence of cognitive verb is allowed, and

shuo

has become a sentence final particle that conveys the speaker’s attitude.

A.

Sinica Corpus:

Function of shuo A verb matrix Saying verb Cognitive verb Impersonal reportative marker Sentence-medial complementizer Sentence-initial counter-expectation marker Hypothetical marker Particle Sentence-final Lexicalized usage Total[1] Token 1861 22 20 44 14 10 0 21 1992 % 93.42

1.10

1.00

2.21

0.70

0.50

0 1.05

100 Modality % Dynamic: 94.53

Deontic: 3.21

Epistemic: 2.26

100

NTU 蘇以文

B.

Spoken Corpus:

Function of shuo A matrix verb Token 976 Impersonal reportative marker Sentence-medial complementizer 16 407 Sentence-initial counter-expectation marker Hypothetical marker 7 36 Particle Sentence-final particle Lexicalized usage 2 92 Total 1536 % 63.55

1.05

26.49

0.45

2.35

0.13

5.98

100 Modality % Dynamic: 63.55

Deontic: 27.54

Epistemic : 8.91

100

NTU 蘇以文

 Dynamic: wo geren yi ceng xiang-guo naxie yijian “I myself have also thought about those opinions” ( 我個人亦曾想過那些意見 ) ta weiyi xiang de chulai de jiu shi yilai bieren “The only thing he could think about is to count on somebody else” ( 他唯一想的出來的，就是倚賴別人 )

 Deontic: xiang gaijin que you wuli-gan “want to make improvement but feel frustrated” ( 想改進卻有無力感 ) tamen xiang biaoda de jishi budui … “even what they want to express is wrong” ( 她們想表達的即使不對 …)

 Epistemic: wo xiang zhe-zhong ren xianzai keneng haishi you “ I think, this kind of people still exists” ( 我想，這種人現在可能還是有 ) wo xiang ren you hen-da de qianneng keyi shiying huanjing “ I think that human beings have huge potential to accustom themselves to the environment” ( 我想，人有很大的潛能可以適應環境）

1 st singular 1 st plural 2 nd singular 2 nd plural 3 rd singular 3 rd plural others total token 254 5 20 0 0 0 21 300 Percentage % 84.67

1.67

6.67

0 0 0 7 100

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   他想說 — A grammatical device enabling other minds to become accessible to direct observation 想說 as CTV (46.1%) (Huang 2002)

  ◦ The semantic change of

xiang

is triggered by the interaction and exclusive co-existence of 1P or 2P subject ◦ ◦ epistemic modality Context Pragmatic force contributes to the assuming of new lexical meanings in the grammatical path of semantic shift

 prepositional>textual>expressive  dynamic>deontic>epistemic

 Language is the means for the expression of thought.

Concrete 說 Speech Mapping Abstract 想 Thought NTU 蘇以文

  Thought may be prior to speech on a philosophical plane. However, as far as the genesis of the linguistic expressions is concerned, it is only reasonable to postulate that speech is more likely a candidate of the source domain in the speech to thought mapping. (Traugott 1986).

  The verb shuo － “ a fundamental elements in a typical speech situation” – is “part of the basic vocabulary” (Wierzbicka 1989) Basic vocabulary: the most elementary human experiences, typically derived from the physical state, behavior, or immediate environment of man

 Basic concepts, such as the verbal concept “to say,” are eligible for the process of grammaticalization because they provide “concrete” reference points for human orientation (source) that evoke associations and are therefore exploited to understand the “less concrete” ones .

 Chang (1998): Taiwanese kong in the initial and final positions is found in the conversational data, and she further suggests that shuo Mandarin verb of saying, is used at the predicate initial or final positions to carry functions similar to those of kong . , the

 Cheng (1989): The verb kong “to say” as a clause-initial marker in Taiwanese has affected Taiwan Mandarin. He considered Taiwanese as a marker of clause complements.

kong

p.2

Work Licensing Author/Source Humboldt, W. von. 1836. Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluss auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts (Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin). Berlin: Dümmlers Verlag. (Reprinted: 1960. Bonn: Dümmlers Verlag; English translation by P. Health. 1988. On language : the diversity of human language-structure and its influence on the mental development of mankind. Cambridge University Press.) and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW

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Work Licensing Author/Source Huang, Shuanfan. 1982. On the (almost perfect) identity of speech and thought: Evidence from Chinese dialects. Paper presented at Fourteenth International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics.

and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW Vygotsky, L. S. 1962. Thought and Language. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press.

and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. 1989. On the rise of epistemic meanings in English: An example of subjectification in semantic change. Language 65:31-55.

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p.16, 20 Licensing Author/Source Langacker, Ronald (1977). Syntactic reanalysis. In Mechanics of Syntactic Change, Charles N. Li (ed.), 59–139. Austin: University of Texas Press.

and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW Givon, T. (1991). Serial verbs and the mental reality of 'event'. In E. C. Traugott & B. Heine (eds), Approaches to grammaticalization. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW Hopper, P. J. & Traugott, E. C. (1993). Grammaticalization. Cambridge: C.U.P.

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p.18, 19 p.25, 46 Licensing Author/Source Sweetser, E. 1990. From etymology to pragmatics: The mind-as-body metaphor in semantic structure and semantic change. Cambridge: CUP and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW Taylor, John R. 1995. Linguistics Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory. Second edition. New York: Oxford University Press. and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW Chang, Miao-Hsia. 1998. The discourse functions of Taiwanese kong in relation to its grammaticalization. Selected Papers from the Second International Symposium on Languages in Taiwan, ed. by Shuanfan Huang, 111-28. Taipei: Crane.

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Licensing Author/Source Huang, Shuanfan. 2003. Doubts about complementation: A functional analysis. Language and Linguistics 4.2: 429-55.

and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW "'Conventional' and 'dead' metaphors revisited", in Wolfgang Paprotté and René Dirven, eds., The Ubiquity of Metaphor: Metaphor in Language and Thought, Amsterdam: Benjamins, 17-56.

and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW Wierzbicka, Anna. 1989. Soul and Mind: Linguistic Evidence for Ethnopsychology and Cultural History. American Anthropologist 91:41-58.

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and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW NTU 蘇以文