Transcript Leisure, Sport and Tourism: Politics, Policy and Planning

Leisure, Sport
and Tourism:
Politics, Policy
and Planning
A.J. Veal
Chapter 2:
Political Ideologies
Definitions
• Ideology: ‘A system of ideas concerning phenomena,
especially those of social life; the manner of thinking
of a class or an individual’ (SOED)
• Internally consistent sets of ideas about how society
should be run (Veal)
• NB. ‘Ideological’ sometimes has negative
connotations
Relevance? Understanding our place in history
• Pre-modern societies:
– spiritual values, goals and regulation
– hereditary class and status systems
– aristocracy and monarchy + theocracy
• Modern societies:
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18th century onwards
humanitarian values and ideals
human progress towards a better society
political ideologies (socialism, liberalism etc.) ='grand
narratives’
• Postmodern societies:
– demise of 'grand narratives'
– NB collapse of communism in the former Soviet Union etc.
– loss of confidence in ideology by ‘the left’ in the West
Relevance 2: Current politics
• Current Western politics:
– Parties need to capture the ‘floating voter’
– Movement to the ‘centre’
– Policies guided by opinion polls rather than ideology
• Current political discourse still uses ideological
terms:
– References to ‘left’, ‘right’, ‘socialism’, ‘neo-liberalism’
etc.
Ideologies covered
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Conservatism
Liberalism/neo-liberalism
Marxism
Democratic socialism
Social democracy/Third Way/communitarianism
Feminism
Environmentalism
Anti-globalism
Political spectrum (Fig. 2.1)
Feminism
Environmentalism
Anti-Globalism
Anarchism
LEFT
Fascism
RIGHT
Parties, governments, ideologies, UK
Ideology
Party
Govt/PM
Dates
Conservatism
Conservative
Party
Churchill/Eden/Macmillan/
Douglas-Home/Heath
Cameron
1951-64
1970-74
2010-
Liberalism/
Neo-liberalism
Conservative
Party
Thatcher/Major
1979-97
Marxism/
Communism
Communist
Party
Not in govt
-
Democratic
Socialism
Labour Party
Atlee
1945-51
Social Democracy
Labour Party
Wilson/Callaghan
1964-70,
1974-79
2010-
Social/Liberal Clegg (in coalition)
Democrats
Third Way
Labour Party
Blair/Brown
1997-2010
Parties, govts, ideologies, Australia
Ideology
Party
Govt/PM
Dates
Conservatism
Liberal Party
National Party
Menzies/Holt/
1949-72
McEwen/ Gorton/ 1975-83
McMahon
In coalition
Liberalism/
Neo-liberalism
Liberal Party
Howard
Marxism/
Communism
Communist Party
Not in
government
Democratic
Socialism
Australian Labor
Party
Whitlam
1972-75
Social
Democracy
Aust. Labor Party
Aust. Democrats
Hawke/Keating
1983-96
Third Way
Aust. Labor Party
Blair/Gillard
1997-2010
Environmentalism
Greens
Aust. Democrats
Not in govt
-
1996-2007
Conservatism
• Origins:
– 19th century landed, upper class
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•
•
•
Principles:
stability and tradition rather than change
acceptance of inequality as natural
respect for 'traditional' institution/values
– (eg. monarchy, family)
• pragmatic re. role of government
• support for voluntarism
Conservative Parties
• UK: Conservative party
• Australia: National Party + Liberal Party (pre1996)
• USA: Republican Party (but also encompasses
neo-liberalism)
Conservatism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism
• Govt support for élite activity and 'excellence‘
• Support for voluntarism
• Govt aid to traditional and rural industries (eg
agriculture, regional tourism)
(Neo-)Liberalism
• Origins
– Liberalism arose in 19th century
– Desire for freedom – of individual, trade – as reaction against
privilege
– Later associated with free market principles – hence use of neoliberalism to indicate right-wing orientation
• Principles
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Freedom of the individual
Belief in the efficacy of competition
Minimization of government interference in markets
Small government
Reduced taxes
Privatisation of state assets
Liberal/Neo-Liberals Parties
• UK: Conservatives under Margaret Thatcher
• Australia: Liberals under John Howard, Tony
Abbott
• USA: Republicans under Ronald Reagan,
George Bush and George W. Bush
Liberalism/Neo-Liberalism and Leisure,
Sport, Tourism
• View of leisure, sport, tourism as a business
sectors is emphasised
• User-pays principle
• Privatisation of operation of leisure/sport/
tourism facilities
• Support for voluntarism
• Freedom of individual choice (eg some have
advocated de-criminalisation of drug use)
Marxism/Neo-Marxism
• Origins:
• Marxism: the 19th century writings of Karl Marx and
Frederick Engels
• Neo-Marxism: 20th century writings adapting Marxism to
later developments in Marxism
• Principles:
• Fundamental feature of society is economic relationships
• Capitalist society characterised by clash of interests between
– bourgeoisie (capitalists), who own the means of
production (capital)
– proletariat (workers) who own only their labour power
• Capitalists seek to maximise profits by exploiting workers
• Eventually capitalism will collapse – this should be hastened
by workers’ revolutionary action to overthrow capitalist
system and take control of means of production
Marxism/Neo-Marxism: Parties
• Communist parties in power :
– 1917-89: Russia/Soviet Union
– 1945-89: Eastern Europe
– Now: China (highly modified), Vietnam, Cuba, N.
Korea, some Indian states
• Decline of communism in Russia and E. Europe
shook faith of Marxist/NeoMarxist Western social
scientists
• Rejection of ‘grand narratives’
• Marxist/Neo-Marxist theory remains a strong
analysis/critique of capitalism
Marxism/Neo-Marxism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism
• Generation of ‘false needs’, by advertising, to
create profits
• Leisure as ‘resistance’ to capitalism (eg. Youth
sub-cultures, subversive art
• Divisiveness, élitism and competitiveness of
leisure institutions
• Public provision provides a ‘human face’ for
an oppressive system
Democratic Socialism
• Origins:
– Marxism and 19th century unions but also many earlier workers’
movements
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Principles: belief in:
Equality and fraternity
Defence of working class interests vs middle/ruling classes;
Sate control of capitalism through ownership/control of key
industries
• State creation of more equality and 'welfare state’ through
progressive taxation
• Change through democratic methods, not by violence
• Capitalism can be 'tamed’ - gradually replaced by socialism
Democratic Socialism: Parties
• Labour parties in UK, Australia, Europe up to
about 1960s
• Now mostly developed into social democratic
parties
Democratic Socialism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism
• Support for state provision of leisure, sport,
tourism facilities/services
• Free/highly subsidised provision, especially for
disadvantaged groups
Social Democracy and the Third Way
• Origins:
– Compromise between socialism and conservatism
– Third Way developed in the 1990s to reshape social
democracy
• Principles:
– Seeks more equality, supports state role/welfare state,
but
– Accepts capitalism will survive
– Does not envisage a socialist system
– Third Way: adds ‘obligations’ to welfare ‘rights’
Social Democracy/Third Way: Parties
• UK:
– Debates in the 1960s/70s moved Labour Party from
socialism to social democracy
– Third Way: Associated with Tony Blair’s leadership of the
Labour Party/Prime Ministership (1997- 2008)
• Australia:
– Australian Labor Party followed approximately the pattern
of Labour in Britain
• USA:
– Left wing of the Democratic Party sometimes viewed as
social democratic
– Third Way associated with President Bill Clinton
Social Democracy/Third Way and Leisure, Sport, Tourism
• Belief in state provision
• Recreational sport, as a social service: sport for all
• Emphasis is on access for all at minim um cost,
preferably free, to the user.
• Community arts alternative to professional, élite
arts, democratisation of the arts + cultural
democracy
• Support for tourism industry but also social
tourism – subsidised holidays for deprived groups
Feminism
• Origins:
– 19th/early 20th century campaign for political rights: votes for
women
• Principles:
– Ideology or ‘movement’?
– Concept of patriarchy: men organise and control society in their
own interests, to the exclusion and disadvantage of women
– Reformist: reform the system (equal pay, equal opportunity,
child care services, etc.)
– Radical/Marxist: change the capitalist system fundamentally
• Parties:
– Generally no specific political parties for feminism
Feminism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism
• Women generally have less leisure time than men
• Tradition/culture/media limit ‘acceptable’ leisure
activities for women
• Institutions and infrastructure of leisure traditionally
dominated by men
• Leisure can be a means of resistance against
patriarchy
• Reformist programmes: transport access, safety, child
care facilities at leisure sites
Environmentalism
• Origins:
– 1960s/70s: concerns about human impacts on flora, fauna and
eco-systems
• Principles:
– Ideology or ‘movement’?
– Questioning of pursuit of economic growth at the expense of
the environment
– Emphasis on sustainability
– Reformist: legislate to prevent negative impacts
– Radical: destructive capitalist system must be changed
fundamentally
• Parties:
– ‘Green’ parties exist in many countries
– Have held/shared power in some European countries
Environmentalism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism
• Leisure, sport, tourism as offenders in the
consumerist/materialist society …?
• Leisure, sport, tourism are major users of natural
environments :
– Requiring the concept of sustainable development/
use
Anti-Globalism
• Origins:
– 1990s concern with:
• Western capitalism generally
• Activities of multi-national enterprises (MNEs) in particular
– Antecedents in empires and 19th century trade
• Principles:
– Ideology or ‘movement’?
– Opposed to MNE impacts on:
• Developing countries
• The environment
• Parties:
– No specific parties, but some Green parties aligned
Anti-Globalism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism
• Many MNEs involved in leisure
• Major impact on sport, media, tourism
• Homogenization/Americanisation of culture ..?
Summary
• See Table 2.2