Transcript Kein Folientitel - uni
Introduction to Applied English Linguistics
winter semester 2002/03 -
Prof Dr Kurt Kohn University of Tübingen Chair of Applied English Linguistics [email protected]
This lecture is organised in two parts.
In the first part, I will give a review of main trends in the development of modern linguistic theory: structuralism, generative grammar, pragmatics, discourse analysis. Particular attention will be given to complementary models of language (system, knowledge, use) with an emphasis on cognitive approaches.
In the second part, I will give an introduction to theoretical and empirical dimensions of applied linguistics from the perspective of second language research. This mainly includes second language learning and teaching, bilingualism and bilingual education, translation and interpreting.
Contents
PART I
(1) Getting started (2) First orientation (3) Dimensions of language
PART II
(4) Translation & interpreting (5) Second language acquisition & learning (6) Second language teaching (7) Bilingualism and bilingual education (8) Language testing (9) Prof Nigel Holden: The language of management (10) Language learning with multimedia & web 24 Oct 24, 31 Oct 7, 14, 21 Nov 5 Dec 12, 19 Dec 9 Jan 16 Jan 23 Jan 30 Jan (?) 6, 13 Feb
Part II
(7) Bilingualism and bilingual education (8) Language testing (9) Prof Nigel Holden: The language of management (10) Language learning with multimedia & web
16 Jan 23 Jan 30 Jan (?) 6, 13 Feb
Translation Studies
Normative views, conventions, preferences
Translation Studies
Normative views, conventions, preferences •
A translation must give the word of the original .
•
A translation must give the ideas of the original .
•
A translation should read like an original work.
•
A translation should reflect the style of the original .
•
A translation should possess the style of the translator .
•
A translation should read as a contemporary of the original .
•
A translation should read as a contemporary of the translator .
•
A translation may add to or omit from the original.
•
A translation may never add to or omit from the original.
•
A translation of verse should be in prose .
•
A translation of verse should be in verse .
(Savory, Th. (19682). The art of translation. London: Jonathan Cape, p.50)
Translation Studies
Normative views, conventions, preferences Störig, H.J. (1973). Das Problem des Übersetzens. Darmstadt: Wiss. Buchgemeinschaft, p.21) "Denn man muß nicht die Buchstaben in der lateinischen Sprache fragen, wie man soll Deutsch reden, wie diese Esel tun, sondern man muß die Mutter im Hause, die Kinder auf den Gassen, den gemeinen Mann auf dem Markt drum fragen, und denselbigen auf das Maul sehen, wie sie reden und darnach dolmetschen; da verstehen sie es denn und merken, daß man deutsch mit ihnen redet.„ (Martin Luther, "Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen", 1530. In Störig 1973:21)
Translation Studies
Normative views, conventions, preferences "Entweder der Uebersezer läßt den Schriftsteller möglichst in Ruhe, und bewegt den Leser ihm entgegen; oder er läßt den Leser möglichst in Ruhe und bewegt den Schriftsteller ihm entgegen. Beide sind so gänzlich von einander verschieden, daß durchaus einer von beiden so streng als möglich muß verfolgt werden, aus jeder Vermischung aber ein höchst unzuverlässiges Resultat nothwendig hervorgeht, und zu besorgen ist daß Schriftsteller und Leser sich gänzlich verfehlen." (Schleiermacher "Über die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", 1813: In Störig 1973:47)
Translation Studies
Translation equivalence "Ein zweiter Problemfaktor ist die notorische Kontroverse über die richtige Perspektive des Übersetzungsvorgangs – wortgetreue oder freie Übersetzung, zielsprachen abgewandte oder zielsprachenzugewandte Übersetzung.
Erst seitdem die Sterilität dieser Kontroverse erkannt ist, und das
interlinguale tertium comparationis
zentraler Bezugspunkt übersetzungstheoretischer Bemühungen geworden ist, beginnt die ÜW methodisch und begrifflich schärfere Konturen anzunehmen. " (Wolfram Wilss (1980). "Semiotik und Übersetzungs wissenschaft„.
In W.
Wilss (Hrsg.).
Semiotik und Übersetzen. Tübingen: Narr, p.10)
Translation Studies
Translation equivalence (Catford, J.C. (1965/78). A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford UP) "Translation may be defined as follows:
The replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)
." (Catford 1965: 20) "The central problem of
translation practice
is that of finding TL translation equivalents. A central task of
translation theory
is that of defining the nature and conditions of translation equivalence." (Catford 1965: 21)
focus on text as object
Translation Studies
Translation equivalence (Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a theory science of translating.
Leiden:Brill; Nida, E.A & Taber, A. (1969). The theory and practice of translation. Leiden: Brill.) "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." (Nida & Taber 1969: 12)
Focus on communication
Translation Studies
‘Skopos’ and adequacy Vermeer, H.J. & Reiss, K (1984). Grundlegung einer allgemeinen Translationstheorie. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
" Adäquatheit bei der Übersetzung eines Ausgangstextes (bzw. – elements) bezeichne die Relation zwischen Ziel- und Ausgangstext bei konsequenter Beachtung eines Zweckes ( Skopos ), den man mit dem Translationsprozeß verfolgt.“ (p. 139) "Die Begriff Adäquatheit/adäquat Resultat dieser Wahl." (p. 139) sind demnach prozeßorientiert zu verwenden. Liegt der Zweck des Translats darin, einen dem Ausgangstext äquivalenten Zieltext darzustellen, so ist auch in diesem fall die Zeichenwahl in der Zielsprache als 'adäquat' zu charakterisieren; die Zeichenwahl selbst (der Prozeß der Translation) kann nicht als 'äquivalent' bezeichnet werden, sondern nur das " Äquivalenz bezeichne eine Relation zwischen einem Ziel- und einem Ausgangstext, die in der jeweiligen Kultur auf ranggleicher Ebene die gleiche kommunikative Funktion erfüllen (können).“ (p. 139/140)
Translation Studies
Aspectival translation Gerzymisch-Arbogast, Heidrun (1994).
Übersetzungswisssen-
schaftliches Propädeutikum. Tübingen: Franke Verlag 1994; Albrecht, Jörn (1990). „Invarianz, Äquivalenz, Adäquatheit“. In Arntz, P. & Thome, G. (Hrsg.). Übersetzungswissenschaft: Ergebnisse und Perspektiven. Tübingen: Narr, 71-81.
„Also nicht ‚Äquivalenz‘ als absolut definierbarer Begriff, der implizit eine (natürlich nicht mögliche) Gleichheit von Texten oder Textelementen in Original und Übersetzung fordert, ist in der Übersetzungswissenschaft sinnvoll, sondern ‚Äquivalenz‘ als relationaler Begriff in bezug auf bestimmte Aspekte, die an ein Original im Hinblick auf die Übersetzung angelegt und als Vergleichsstandard herangezogen werden. Erst dann ist der Begriff der Äquivalenz ein für die Übersetzungswissenschaft operationalisier- barer, also anwendbarer Terminus und läßt sowohl auf mikro struktureller als auch auf makro-struktureller Ebene Aussagen zu." (Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1994: 28ff.)
Translation Studies
Aspectival translation Gerzymisch-Arbogast, Heidrun (1994). Übersetzungswisssen- schaftliches Propädeutikum. Tübingen: Franke Verlag 1994, 94 "Mit den hier (. . .) aufgestellten Aspekten wird ein Vorschlag gemacht, den Begriff Äquivalenz nicht mehr absolut, sondern relational in bezug auf bestimmte Aspekte zu fassen, die der Übersetzer im Original herausgearbeitet und – nach seinem Ermessen bzw. in Absprache mit seinen Auftraggebern gewichtet – systematisch in der Übersetzung gestaltet (. . . )."
Translation Studies
Aspectival translation Gerzymisch-Arbogast, Heidrun (1994). Übersetzungswisssen- schaftliches Propädeutikum. Tübingen: Franke Verlag 1994, 95 Schritt 1: Erstlektüre formaler Auffälligkeiten zur (intuitiven) Ermittlung inhaltlicher und Schritt 2: Erstellung einer Aspektliste (auf der Basis der notierten Auffälligkeiten), z.B. Titelgebung, Lexik, Syntax, Informations-dichte, Informationsgliederung, Autor-Leser-Verhältnis Schritt 3: Aspektives Lesen jeder Textstelle unter jedem Aspekt und Zuordnung des entsprechenden Aspektwertes ( Aspektmatrix) Schritt 4: Übersetzungsbezogenes Lesen mit Gewichtung der ermittelten Aspekte (in einer Prioritätenliste) im Hinblick auf das Übersetzungsziel (vgl. Skopos) Schritt 5: Aspektives Übersetzen
Translation Studies
A cognitive perspective Kohn, Kurt (1990) Translation as conflict. In P.H.Nelde (ed.).
Confli(c)t. ABLA Papers 14, 105-113.
Kurt Kohn (1993). Contrastive Analysis and translation. In H.U.
Seeber & W. Göbel (Hrsg.). Anglistentag 1992 Stuttgart.
Tübingen: Niemeyer, 327-336.
Kurt Kohn & Sylvia Kalina (1996). The strategic dimension of interpreting. Meta 41:1 Snell-Hornby, Mary (1988). Translation studies. An integrated approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Translation Studies
« Rocky 1» Rocky slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape.
He hesitated a moment and thought.
Things were not going well. What bothered him most was being held, especially since the charge against him had been weak. He considered his present situation. The lock that held him was strong, but he thought he could break it.
Translation Studies
« Rocky 1»
Jail
Translation Studies
« Rocky 1»
Wrestling
Translation Studies
« Rocky 1» Rocky slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape.
He hesitated a moment and thought.
Things were not going well. What bothered him most was being held, especially since the charge against him had been weak. He considered his present situation. The lock that held him was strong, but he thought he could break it.
Translation Studies
« Rocky 2: wrestling» Rocky slowly mat, planning got up his from the escape .
He hesitated a moment and thought. Things were not going well. What bothered him most was being held , especially since the charge against him had been weak. He considered his present situation. The held him lock that was strong, but he thought he could break it .
Rocky gelang es, langsam von der Matte wieder hochzukommen. Er versuchte, sich zu befreien.
Einen Augenblick lang zögerte er und überlegte.
Es stand nicht gerade gut. Am meisten ärgerte ihn, daß er sich in einem festen Griff befand; dabei war der Angriff eher schwach gewesen.
Rocky konzentrierte sich auf seine Situation. Der Griff, mit dem er gehalten wurde, war zwar stark, aber er war überzeugt, daß er ihn würde brechen können.
Translation Studies
« Rocky 3: jail» Rocky slowly mat, planning got up his from the escape .
He hesitated a moment and thought. Things were not going well. What bothered him most was being held , especially since the charge against him had been weak. He considered his present situation. The held him lock that was strong, but he thought he could break it .
Langsam stand Rocky von seiner Pritsche Ausbruch.
auf. Er plante seinen Für einen Moment zögerte er noch und dachte nach.
Die Dinge hatten sich nicht gerade gut entwickelt.
Das schlimmste war, dass er jetzt im Gefängnis saß; dabei war die Anklage eher schwach gewesen.
Er konzentrierte sich auf seine augenblickliche Lage. Das Schloss war zwar stark, aber er war überzeugt, dass er es würde knacken können.
Translation Studies
A model of discourse processing
semantic autonomy spontaneous retrieval of linguistic means of expression Discourse-based mental modeling (speaker) Appropriate linguistic knowledge continuous elaboration Discourse-related context
DISCOURSE
(passage) Relevant world knowledge Previous discourse based modeling Discourse-based mental modeling (addressee)
Translation Studies
Problems of translating • Insufficient world knowledge and/or insufficient linguistic knowledge comprehension/production problems Creative exploitation of linguistic means of expression comprehension/production problems Insufficient source text comprehension comprehension/production problem: linguistic decision, e.g. disambiguation Lack of semantic/communicative autonomy production problem: disruption of spontaneous linguistic retrieval Continuing presence of the source text production problem: linguistic interference (translationese)
Translation Studies
“Anyone”
anyone lived in a pretty how town (with up so floating many bells down) spring summer autumn winter he sang his didn't he danced his did.
Women and men (both little and small) cared for anyone not at all they sowed their isn't they reaped their same sun moon stars rain ....
e. e. cummins
Translation Studies
“Play”
Every Saturday night, four good friends get together.
When Jerry, Mike, and Pat arrived, Karen was sitting in her living room writing some notes . She quickly gathered her cards and stood up to greet her friends at the door.
They followed her into the living room but as usual they couldn't agree on exactly what to play . Jerry eventually took a stand play.
and set things up. Finally, they began to Karen's recorder filled the room with soft and pleasant music. Early in the evening, Mike noticed Pat's hand and the many diamonds ... ....
Translation Studies
Translation competence
From natural to professional translation competence
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language
Diversification of Second Language Research
Second Language Learning
Bialystok, E. & Hakuta, K. (1994). In other words. The science and psychology of second-language acquisition. NewYork: BasicBooks HarperCollins.
Brown, H.D. & Gonzo, S. (ed.) (1995). Readings on second language acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall Regents.
Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (1994). Second language acquisition. An introductory course. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum. Gasss, S.M. & Selinker, L. (eds.) (1983). Language transfer in language learning. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.
Johnson, K. (2001). An introduction to foreign language learning and teaching. Longman.
Kohn, K. (1990). Dimensionen lernersprachlicher Performanz. Theoretische und empirische Untersuchungen zum Zweitsprachenerwerb. Tübingen: Narr.
Larsen-Freeman, D. & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. London: Longman.
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language (Kohn 1990, chap.1)
The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
The most effective materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared wit a parallel description of the native language of the learner.
(Fries 1945: 9)
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language Robert Lado (1957) . Linguistics across cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
"Since the learner tends to transfer the habits of his native language, we have here the major source of difficulty or ease in learning the structure of a foreign language. Those structures that are similar will be easy to learn because they will be transferred and may function satisfactorily in the foreign language. Those structures that are different will be difficult because when transferred they will not function satisfactorily in the foreign language and will therefore have to be changed. We can say that the these structures that are different degree of control of is an index to how much of the language a person has learned." (Lado 1957: 59)
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language Focus: contrasts and correspondences between L1 and L2 Theoretical framework: behaviorism / structuralism Basic assumptions: learning = imitation (of input) + transfer contrasts = learning difficulties = errors Empirical counter-evidence: Not all contrasts result in difficulties and errors Not all errors result from contrasts developmental errors (Richards 1971) Wardhaugh (1970) tries to overcome the empirical problems of the contrastive analysis hypothesis by distinguishing between a strong (prediction) and a weak (explanation) version.
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language
The significance of learners‘ errors
Corder, S. Pit (1967/1985) . The significance of learners‘ errors. In S. P. Corder (1985). Error analysis and interlanguage. Oxford: OUP.
"Teachers have not always been very impressed by this contribution from the linguist i.e. contrastive analysis for the reason that their practical experience has usually already shown them where these difficulties lie and they have not felt that the contribution from the linguist has provided them with any significantly new information.“ (Corder 1967: 162)
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language Focus: shift from a teaching to a learning perspective Theoretical framework: a mentalistic approach (Chomsky 1964) "This hypothesis states that a human infant is born with an innate predisposition to acquire language; that he must be exposed to language for the acquisition process to start; that he possesses an internal mechanism of unknown nature which enable him from the limited data available to him to construct a grammar of a particular language." (Corder 1967: 166)
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language Hypothesis: L1 = L2 ( creative construction, cf. Dulay & Burt 1974) "I propose therefore as a working hypothesis that some at least of the
strategies
adopted by the learner are substantially the same as those by which a first language is acquired.“ (Corder 1967: 166/7)
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language Hypothesis: the learner’s language ". . . that the language learner at all points of his learner career 'has a language' , in the sense that his behaviour is rule governed and therefore, in principle, describable in linguistic terms. That his language is changing all the time, that his rules are constantly undergoing revision is, of course, true and merely complicates the problem of description but does not invalidate the concept of a learner's language ." Corder 1973: 36) the learner’s in-built syllabus ( the natural order hypothesis, cf. Krashen 1982 input ( intake comprehensible input, cf. Krashen 1985)
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language the status of errors "We must therefore make a distinction between those errors which are the product of such chance circumstances and those which reveal his underlying knowledge of the language to date, or, as we may call it his transitional competence. The errors of performance will characteristically be unsystematic and the errors of competence , systematic." (Corder 1967: 166)
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language "A learner's errors , then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using (i.e. has learned) at a particular point in the course (and it must be repeated that he is using some system, although it is not yet the right system). They are significant in three different ways. First to the teacher , in that they tell him . . . how far to the goal the learner has progressed.
Second, they provide to the researcher evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in his discovery of the language. Thirdly, . . . they are indispensable to the learner himself, because we can regard the making of errors as a device the learner uses on order to learn. It is a way they learner has of testing his hypotheses about the nature of the language he is learning." (Corder 1967: 167)
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language An example from L1 acquisition: Mother: Did Billy have his egg cut up for him at breakfast?
Child: Yes, I showeds him.
Mother: You what?
Child: I showed him.
Mother: You showed him?
Child: I seed him.
Mother: Ah, you saw him.
Child: Yes, I saw him.
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language
The Interlanguage Hypothesis
(Selinker 1972/74) Focus on the learning perspective.
Assumption of a latent psychological language structure language learning; this structure incorporates for second five processes : language transfer transfer of training strategies of second language learning strategies of second language communication overgeneralization of TL linguistic material
Second Language Learning
Discovery of the Learner’s Language
Fossilization
is assumed to exist in the latent psychological language structure: "Fossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules, and subsystems which speakers of a particular NL their IL will tend to keep in relative to a particular TL, no matter what the age of the learner or amount of explanation and instruction he receives in the TL." (Selinker 1973/4: 36 "A crucial fact . . . which any adequate theory of second language learning will have to explain is this regular reappearance or re emergence in IL productive performance of linguistic structures which were thought to be eradicated . This behavioral reappearance is what has led me to postulate the reality of fossilization and ILs." (Selinker 1973/4: 36)
Second Language Learning
Diversification of Second Language Research
The strategic dimension
“An error in error analysis” (Schachter 1974) Difficulties (and errors) can be avoided !
focus on second language strategies limitations of error analysis
Second Language Learning
Diversification of Second Language Research Toward a working definition Bei einer lernersprachlichen Strategie handelt es sich im Unterschied zu einem Automatismus um einen Performanzprozess, der vom Lerner im Hinblick auf die Erfüllung eines gegebenen Steuerungsprinzips kontrolliert wird. Es liegt auf der Hand, dass eine strategische Einflussnahme seitens des Lerners nur in dem Maße möglich ist, in dem das betreffende Steuerungsprinzip in seiner Geltung und/oder Durchsetzbarkeit überhaupt durch den Lerner beeinflusst werden kann.
(Kohn 1990a:116) (also see Ellis 1994: 531; separate transparency)
Second Language Learning
Diversification of Second Language Research Communication strategies (cf. Færch & Kasper 1983, 1987) formal reduction strategies: phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical; functional reduction strategies: e.g. topic avoidance, message abandonment, meaning replacement; achievement strategies: e.g. code switching, inter/intralingual transfer, generalization, paraphrasing, coinage, restructuring, co-operative strategies.
Learning strategies (cf. O’Malley & Uhl Chamot 1990: 46; separate transparency) Introspective methods (cf. Færch & Kasper 1987)
Second Language Learning
Diversification of Second Language Research
Socio-psychological approaches
The pidginization hypothesis (cf. Schumann 1976, 1978, 1986; McLaughlin 1987) Cognitive and affective variables (cf. Gardner & MacIntyre 1992/93; separate transparency)
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner (cf. Kohn 1990a, chap. 3)
“Was der Lerner nicht weiß, macht ihn nicht heiß!”
Outside – inside
Target language norms, linguistic input, correspondences and contrasts between languages, native speaker reactions, or situation specific communicative requirements – these are factors which, first of all, exist outside the learner.
At the same time, however, there can be no doubt that they have an influence on the learner’s behaviour. This is only possible in so far as they have an existence inside the learner.
e.g. contrastive intuitions e.g. intake
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner
Two views on correctness
Learners want (have) to be correct, i.e. they want (have) to produce utterances that are grammatically correct: external view norm – correct in relation to the target language internal view – correct in relation to the learner’s own knowledge of correctness
The status of errors
Errors are part of the external view: They show deviations of the learner’s interlanguage from the target language (which indicate that the learner is actually learning and not just imitating) but they are only weak and indirect indicators of specific interlanguage strategies.
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner
Strategic processing: avoidance
Learners who want to be correct and who adopt a strategy of avoiding problematic structures will try not to use forms which they know are incorrect or for which they are not certain whether they are correct or not.
Their strategy of avoidance will be successful if they manage to produce an output which complies highly with their knowledge of correctness.
A learner’s strategic behaviour is not determined by what is correct or incorrect, rather by what the learner
believes
to be correct or incorrect.
What learner’s don’t know will neither hurt nor help them in their attempt to tune their interlanguage performance to what they want to achieve.
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner
Dimensions of interlanguage performance
Interlanguage requirements
Strategies have a place in interlanguage performance to the extent that it is intentional. On a
general level
, learners want to communicate with other people in the target language to learn, i.e. advance their (declarative and procedural) knowledge of the target language Learners use strategies to ensure that they make best use of their (linguistic) resources in their attempt to reach their intentional goals.
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner
Interlanguage requirements
On a more
specific level
, learners impose (intentional) requirements on their own performance; they want to be, e.g., correct, understood or fluent. While these requirements have a primary orientation toward communication, others are specific for learning, e.g. to elicit information about the target language, to test learning hypotheses, or to consolidate newly acquired structures.
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner
A real learner’s linguistic knowledge
Learners’ linguistic knowledge, i.e. knowledge they apply in strategic processing, has the following characteristics: it is
functional
, i.e. about linguistic means of expression relative to requirements of performance, e.g. correctness, or comprehensibility; it is
systematic
, i.e. not a corrupted version of the target language norm; it is
hypothetical
, i.e. not definite but rather more or less certain; it is
subjective
(real), i.e. stored in individual learners’ minds (otherwise it would be of no use to them in performance).
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner
The knowledge/output paradox
Accessing the real learner’s linguistic knowledge is not a trivial task: On the one hand, the linguistic knowledge learners have stored in their minds can never be measured directly. What we can observe is only its reflection in what learners do, that is in their interlanguage output (products of performance).
On the other hand, we cannot simply interpret output in terms of underlying knowledge. A learner’s knowledge, when put into action, is superimposed by retrieval constraints which have a more or less distorting influence, especially when his/her capacity for control is reduced, e.g. when he/she is tired or under some kind of strain.
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner
The knowledge/output paradox
Solution: output conditions for which retrieval constraints are minimal. In this case, a learner’s knowledge can be inferred, with reasonable certainty, from from his/her performance under these conditions.
( recognition tasks)
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner
A Learner’s knowledge: empirical measures
(cf. Kohn 1990a, chap. 4) o o o o o o
Example: relative clause, object position
The red haired robber whom the policeman caught
was sentenced to ten years in jail.
This is the man whom we saw last summer. The air hostess whom I asked for advice was very polite. He is one of the journalists whom we wanted to meet. Is that the boy whom you saw at the station? We are staying with a friend whom we met at the opera.
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner Groups of interlanguage variants:
that who The red haired robber ø whom which the policeman caught . . .
Judgments of correctness: 1.
2.
3.
certainly correct certainly incorrect not sure
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner Judgments of correctness: 1.
2.
3.
certainly correct certainly incorrect not sure that who The red haired robber ø (C) (I) (C) whom (N) which (I)
the policeman caught . . .
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner that who The red haired robber ø (C) (I) (C) whom (N) which (I)
the policeman caught . . .
Value of correctness : (VC) = n(cert. corr.) – n(certainly incorr.) -------------------------------------------- N
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner
Knowledge of correctness:
THAT WHO ø WHOM WHICH cert. correct 3 1 5 5 0 cert. incorr.
3 4 0 0 6 not sure 0 1 1 1 0 value of corr.
(3-3)/6 = 0 (1-4)/6 = -0.5
(5-0)/6 = +0.83
(5-0)/6 = +0.83
(0-6)/6 = -1
Second Language Learning
The Real Learner Maximum value of correctness: MAX ex.: +0.83
Actualised value of correctness: ACT ex.: 4 x ‘who’, 2 x ‘whom’ = (4x(-0.5)+2x0.83)/6 = -0.6
Value of compliance: COM = (MAX – ACT) ex.: 0.83-(-0.06) = +0-89 Theoretical production value: TVP = VC x 100 (if VC neg.: TVP = 0) Actual production value: APV = F (relat. frequency of occ.) x 100 A deviation of APV from TVP indicates the influence of factors other than the learner’s knowledge on his/her interlanguage performance.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies (cf. Kohn 1990a, chap.5)
The concept
An interlanguage strategy is an intentional process: learner A does X in order to achieve Y.
An adequate model of interlanguage strategies accounts for and integrates the following three dimensions: the learner’s requirement profile, the learner’s knowledge about how fulfill these requirements, the learner’s products of performance.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies
A learner’s requirement profile
Do you want to be correct?
Yes, because it is an important feature of language:
Hossein: As a matter of fact, every language has a rule for structure
and every person must be learn that structure (...)
Yes, because it essential for being understood:
Hossein: Because if I wrong speak English, they don’t understand.
Yes, because I don’t want to appear uneducated:
Hossein: (...) and maybe funny for them (...) When I a speaking and
interview with a person, sometimes I ashame (...) When I speak correct I am happy and when I have mistake is very bad. Because maybe they think we haven’t literacy. Maybe think I am illiteracy.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies Do you want to be correct?
Yes, because of the negative learning effect of incorrect use:
Rafael: Because when a person is learning a new language eh that
person must try to learn it very well; for example, if you use eh one or two expression in no correctly way, you you can - you will continue eh doing that expression in that way.
Laura: Because if I speak now bad always am I going to speak bad
(...) I want to learn English well. If I speak bad I accustom to speak always bad and it’s difficult to speak well another time.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies Do you want to be correct?
(Yes) But it is more important to be understood:
Zohreh: Only the important thing is the people understand me when I
speak; but not it’s necessary to speak correctly. (...) I came he to learn English, not ashame of people.
Zohreh: If I want to speak correctly like now must thinking, thinking
and I don’t like it. I can speak only – I like to speak rapidly.
(No) Comprehensibility and fluency are more important
Amir: I a person wanna understand us and they attention to us they
will understand.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies A learner’s interlanguage requirement profile is determined by his/her personality his/her learning style the communicative situation
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies
Performance strategies
Learners activate their interlanguage knowledge in order to fulfil a requirement of performance, or a constellation of requirements.
Relevant requirements correctness comprehensibility fluency are e.g.: Dimensions of analysis: What are a learner’s requirements?
What does he/she know?
What does he/she do?
Success: subjective objective
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies Norm compliance strategies Strategies that aim, e.g., at the requirement of correctness.
strategy of preference strategy of avoidance Learners will prefer variants with a high value of correctness and they will avoid variants with a low or negative value of correctness. This results in a good (i.e. low) value of compliance.
Rafael:
For example, if you if you have to say something about anything and I am not sure about an expression I try eh no to speak that expression (. . .) I try to use another expression.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies Strategy of avoidance
target of avoidance vehicle of avoidance Compare, e.g., semantic avoidance, topic avoidance
Rafael: Some times eh I don’t eh speak eh with somebody because eh
I believe that I will make mistake (. . .) and that problem is a is a obstacle.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies Communication strategies They aim at communicative requirements (cf. Færch & Kasper 1983): formal reduction strategies: phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical; functional reduction strategies: e.g. topic avoidance, message abandonment, meaning replacement; achievement strategies: e.g. code switching, inter/intralingual transfer, generalisation, paraphrasing, coinage, restructuring, co-operative strategies.
It is important to note that this typology is functional. Whether a certain strategy belongs to the group of communicative strategies or to the group of norm compliance strategies depends on the learner’s requirements.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies
Learning strategies
Learning strategies referring to input : Hossein: I prefer to eh American people (. . .) Because, I said to you,
American people speak correct than foreign student. Of course, they speak quickly, fast; but they can correctly and their pronunciation is o.k.
Laura: I think that I would learn more if I talk with Americans (. . .) I
don’t have friends, American friends, I don’t know, I’m timid (. . .) The mentality is different. And they, maybe they don’t feel like me. They think about other things and, I don’t know, they are very cold. I don’t feel, I don’t feel like with them.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies Learning strategies referring to input : Amir: I think it is not true that/but (?) I just wanna study in the class.
And I think: What is the other way for learn English? The most important: contact with the American. But I didn’t know how can contact with them. And the best thing that I thought I can do, it was go to the stores and talk with the sellers.
Rafael: I think that eh there is a way in order to improve a new
language eh, for example, reading paper eh listen to the radio eh TV eh any kind of book ya. Because when you do or when a person does that ya that person are getting, that person is getting, for example, vocabulary eh ah maybe pronunciation. If you read in high voice ya eh in that way you can, you can improve, or, you can get eh better pronunciation ya.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies Expansion and integration : Laura: I memory, good memory and, I don’t know, it’s easy for me. I
have tendence? – it’s easy to me to learn some languages. And the English is easy (. . .) When I, for example, I don’t know the mean the mean of one ya? of one word I look up – look up? – on the dictionary and I remember and I apply? the word with a sentence or with something and it’s – I don’t know – it’s easy for me.
Relax / Trying out things : Laura: Sometimes when I speak I I realize that I’m not speaking well
and the structure is different. But I try to to speak without the structure to to feel free.
Testing learning hypotheses : Zohreh: If I don’t use the structure that I eh don’t sure about never I
learn English.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies
Monitoring
Laura: I memory, good memory and, I don’t know, it’s easy for me. I
have tendence? – it’s easy to me to learn some languages. And the English is easy (. . .) When I, for example, I don’t know the mean the mean of one ya? of one word I look up – look up? – on the dictionary and I remember and I apply? the word with a sentence or with something and it’s – I don’t know – it’s easy for me.
Hossein: When I child – when I was child – when I was child, I like – I
liked basketball.
Second Language Learning
Interlanguage strategies Discuss: Krashen’s “monitor” concept vs. a more comprehensive understanding of monitoring processes Type of knowledge: learned knowledge – acquired knowledge Types of monitoring (with regard to phase of performance): anticipatory – simultaneous – retrospective Source of knowledge: internal - external Empirical access: errors (?) requirements – knowledge – output (!)
Second Language Teaching
Communicative Language Teaching