'Minorities in Europe” Session 1: Introduction and

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Transcript 'Minorities in Europe” Session 1: Introduction and

"Minorities in Europe” Session 1:

Introduction and definition of the focal problem.

Does the European Union have a minority policy?

Denis Gruber Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State University DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

"Minorities in Europe” Session 1:

Introduction and definition of the focal problem.

Does the European Union have a minority policy?

Overview:

1. Structure of the seminar 2. Discussing Minorities: Definition, Facts and Protection 3. Going in detail: Minorities in Europe 4. Stateless Persons. The Case of Estonia 5. European Union and Minority Policy 6. The FNCM 7. Conclusion

"Minorities in Europe”

1. What is a minority? Ethnic and National Minorities in Europe

Tuesday 2 March Introduction and definition of the focal problem.

Does the European Union have a minority policy?

Lecturing Seminar Discussion Ethnic Minorities in Europe: The Basic Facts, Stefan Wolff (2002) 2.

Wednesday 3 March National and Ethnic Minorities in Europe Minority Rights Lecturing Seminar Discussion

Presentations:

Minority Issues in and the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities, HANS-JOACHIM HEINTZE (2000) High Commissioner on National Minorities Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights European Centre for Minority Issues

"Minorities in Europe”

2. Ethnicity, Ethnic Minorities, Minority Identities and Minority Languages

Thursday 4 March Ethnicity, Ethnic Mobilization and Ethnic Violence Lecturing Seminar Discussion

Presentations:

Ethnic Mobilization and Ethnic Violence, James D. Fearon (2004) Bascque ethnic violence The Roma The Gypsies 4.

Friday 5 March Cultural Identities and Ethnic Minorities in Europe Lecturing Seminar Discussion Europeas a mosaic of identitites: some reflections, Estanislao Arroyabe (2006)

Presentations: Gruber

Cyprus Greek Kosovo 5.

Tuesday 9 March Minority and Regional Languages in Europe.

Language Minorities in Old and New Europe Lecturing Seminar Discussion LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AND NEW MINORITIES IN Europe, Ingrid Gogolin (2002)

Presentations:

European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages Case Studies

"Minorities in Europe”

3. Ethnic Minorities in Eastern, Central, South-Western and South-Eastern Europe

Wednesday 10 March Eastward Enlargement and National Minorities Lecturing Seminar Discussion The forgotten issue? Eastward enlargement and national minorities Ruth Ferrero1 (2005)

Presentations:

e.g. Croatia, Ukraine 7.

Thursday 11 March 8.

Friday 12 March 9.

Monday 15 March 10.

Tuesday 16 March Ethnic Minorities in European Cities Lecturing Seminar Discussion Russian minority in abroad. The case of the Estonia Lecturing Seminar Discussion People with Turkish Migration Background in Germany Lecturing Seminar Discussion Ethnic Minorities in South-Eastern and South-Western Europe Lecturing Seminar Discussion

Presentations:

Immigrants and Ethnic Minorities in European Cities: Life-courses and Quality of Life in a World of Limitations (Schwarz-woelzl 2006) Life-courses quality of life Ethnic Settlement (Centre-Suburbs) New Identity of Russian Speaking Children in Estonian Society Mare Leino, Marika Veisson, (2006) The Turkish Minority in : The Relationship between Politics and Education in the Integration of Parallel Communities Christine Difato (2006) Minority Nationalism in the Balkans: the Bulgarian Case Andrey Ivanov (2006)

Presentations: Gruber (Estonia)

Latvia Lithuania

Presentations:

The Case of Kreuzberg From 1 st – 3 rd generation immigrants

Presentations:

e.g. Romania, Bulgaria

11.

Wednesday 17 March 12.

Thursday 18 March

"Minorities in Europe”

4. Ethnic Minorities, Labour Markets and Minority Entrepreneurship Presentations:

Infomal Sector Labour Market Positions of Ethnic Minorities in Europe Lecturing Seminar Discussion Ethnic Discrimination in europe’s Labour Market: A Field Experiment, Leo Kaas / Christian Manger (2010) Self Employment Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship Lecturing Seminar Discussion Ethnic entrepreneurship: A theoretical framework , Thierry Volery , (2007)

Presentations:

Small and medium-sized ethnic entrepreneurs Ethnic Business 13.

Friday 19 March

5. Minorities, Demographics and Social Problems

Sexual Minorities in Europe Lecturing Seminar Discussion Who is afraid of sexual minorities? Homosexuals, moral panic and the exercise of social control, Iwona Zielinska (2005) Presentations: Case Studies

Inside majorities and minorities

• • • • there is a mutual dependence between majorities and minorities with positive and negative aspects presence of ethnic minority is a challenge for the recognition and protection of their fundamental rights minority question is a common task and problem for all Europeans Europe has been the cradle of the ideology of the nation-state: minorities living in states with ethnically different majorities are facing the suspicion to be a kind of "fifth brigade"of their respective "kin-state" or at least they are considered "nationally not enough reliable“

Discussing Minorities

• term “minority” is still ambiguously defined in specialised literature as well as in the political debate definition of a minority group can vary, depending on specific context

differentiate between:

- traditional national or autochthonous minorities - old and new (immigrant) minorities - national and ethnic minorities - types of religious, language, sexual, stateless, economic, handicapped (disabled) age etc. minorities … to avoid confusion, some authors prefer the terms "subordinate group" and "dominant group" rather than "minority" and "majority

Discussing Minorities

 … sociological a minority is not necessarily a numerical minority — it may include any group that is subnormal with respect to a dominant group in terms of social status, education, employment, wealth, political power, social behavoiur, etc.

 the term "minority" typically refers to a socially subordination ethnic and / or national group (understood in terms of language, nationality, religion and / or culture)

Discussing Minorities

- group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society - group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, follow strategies to single out from the others in the society - role of identities - inclusion, exclusion, self-exclusion - discrimination - historical development - socio-economic, socio-political, socio-cultural development - protest, resistance, violence

Discussing Minorities

   Some minorities are so relatively large or historically or otherwise important that the system is set up in a way to guarantee them comprehensive protection and political representation e.g.: Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina recognizes the three main nations, none of which constitute a numerical majority, as constitutive nations, but….

… other minorities such as Roma and Jews, are officially labelled as "others" and are excluded from some protections, e.g. they may not be elected to a range of high political positions including the presidency

Defining Minorities

According to Capotorti's definition for the UN (Pan/Pfeil, 2003) "minority" means a community… a) compactly or dispersedly settled on the territory of a state; b) which is smaller in number than the rest of the population of a state c) whose members are citizens of that state ( but: what is the case for stateless persons?) d) which have ethnic, linguistic or cultural features different from those of the rest of the population ( but: what is with the self-perception of peoples without their own state like the Catalans, the Bretons, the Corsicans, the Romany, etc .) e) whose members are guided by the will to safeguard these features

Ethnic Minority

“An ethnic group is characterized by some behavioural patterns, value orientations, and interests, often political, social and economic, which differ from those of other groups within society. An ethnic group is considered to be an ethnic group with several distinguishing characteristics in comparison to other ethnic groups.” (Jenkins 1997)

• • • 

Who does belong to an ethnic minority?

Ethnic groups can live in nation-states although they have no origin or tradition in these areas, e.g. migrant groups or refugees The relationships between majority groups and minority groups are the most popular researches in ethnic studies Here, is often argued that although both special groups, majority and minority, share a common culture, a historic tradition, and a sense of ‘peoplehood’ (Banks, 1997: 66)



Who does belong to an ethnic minority?

•

but: In Scotland, those referred to as 'ethnic

minorities' are mainly identified as those groups of people who have come from the 'new commonwealth' to live in the country since the 1950‘s. However, this excludes the many 'ethnic minorities' from England and Europe who settled in Scotland before and since the 1950's

National Minority

• A national minority lives in another nation, but their ethnic group has got its own government in another national state, e.g. Danish people living in Germany, or Hungarians living in Romania.

but: * What is the case for ethnic Russians living in Estonia or Latvia without any citizenship?

* Are ethnic minorities also national minorities?

Language Minority

official language minority groups mostly have the right to be educated in their language, in their own schools, with their own elected school boards, where they exist in sufficient numbers - they are neither an ethnic nor a national minority, but their first language is not the same as the mother tongue of the ethnic majority of the country they live in, e.g. the French speaking citizens of Switzerland

Facts about minorities in Europe

• • • • • Apart from the mini-states all European states are home to ethnic and national minorities 87 different minorities are living in Europe In 2003 (last census) the number of persons belonging to a national or ethnic minority in Europe accounts to 86,674 millions (11,45% of the population) divided on 329 national or ethnic groups just about 30 years ago the number of Europe's ethnic minorities has been estimated with 90 ethnic groups with a maximum of 38 millions of members About 80% of Europe's 329 national minorities have less then 300.000 members.

Facts about minorities in Europe

• • • • • No European country with more than one million inhabitants has no national minorities Even in Portugal, often retained a country without minorities, apart from the Romany, are living two Hispanic minorities The remaining countries are hosting between 3 and 45 minority groups each The major number of ethnic minorities obviously are living in the European part of Russia (45 groups), followed by the Ukraine (23 groups) and Romania (19 groups) The respective share of national minorities on the total national population of the single European states is moving between a few percent and more than 30% as in Latvia, Moldova, Macedonia, Estonia and Serbia-Montenegro

Facts about minorities in Europe

German speaking groups (not as titular nation) in 22 states - There are Romany groups in 28 states - Russians, after the collapse of the USSR, are a minority in 9 European states - Ukraine alone is home to 11 millions of (at least) ethnic Russians

EUROPEAN MINORITIES

• Åland Islands • Albanians • Alsace • Aosta Valley • Arabs • Aragon • Armenians • Aromanians • Asturias • Azores • Basque Country • Belarussians • Bosniacs • Brittany • Bulgarians • Bunjevci (Bunyevtsi) in Serbia • Canary Islands • Cashoubs • Catalonia • Cimbres • Cornwall • Corsica • Crimea • Croats • Csángó • Czechs • Danes • Estonians • Faroe Islands • Finns • Flanders • Frisia • Friuli • Gagauzia • Galicia • Germans • Greeks • Grishun • Hungarians • Ingria • Ireland (North)

• • Ireland (North) • Italians • Karelia

Kashubians

• Kosovo (Albanians) • Kurdistan • Ladins • Latvians • Lipovians • Lithuanians • Livonians • Lorraine - Moselle • Low Germans • Ludians • Luxembourgers • Macedonians • Madeira • Man / Isle of Man • Mirandians • Montenegro • Moravia • Occitania • Poles

EUROPEAN MINORITIES

• Pomaks • Prussia • Romanians • Roms • Russians • Ruthenians • Sápmi (Lappland) • Sardinia • Savoy • Scania • Scotland • Serbs • Seto • Silesia • Slovaks • Slovenes • Sorbs • South Tyrol • Swedes • Tatars • Transdniestr / Transnistria • Yenishes • Yiddish

The Case of the Ludians

• • Ladin (Ladino in Italian) is a Rhaeto-Romance language spoken in the Dolomite mountains in northern Italy in the border regions of the provinces • • • Südtirol and Veneto it is closely related to the Swiss Romansh it is spoken in some municipalities of the Province of Bolzano Bozen, the Province of Trento, and the province of Belluno It is officially recognized in Italy and has some official rights in the region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, while it does not have official status in the province of Belluno (Veneto region).

The Case of the Kashubians

• • • • • • • • • a West Slavic ethnic group in Pomerelia, north-central Poland settlement area is referred to as Kashubia (Polish: Kaszuby, German: Kaschubei, Kaschubien) members speak Kashubian, classified either as a language or a Polish dialect In analogy to the linguistic classification, Kashubians are considered either an ethnic or a linguistic group Among larger cities, Gdynai contains the largest proportion of people declaring Kashubian origin the biggest city of the Kashubia region is Gdansk, the capital of the Pomerian Voivodeship and the traditional capital of Kashubia traditional occupations of Kashubians were agriculture and fishing today‘s occupation: service and hospitality industry, agrotourism main organization that maintains the Kashubian identity is the Kashubian Pomerian Association

• • • • • • •

The Case of the Kashoubians

over 300,000 people in Poland are of the Kashubian ethnicity In the Polish census of 2002, only 5,100 people declared Kashubian nationality 51,000 declared Kashubian as their native language a „standard" Kashubian language does not exist despite attempts to create one, rather a variety of dialects are spoken that differ significantly from each other The vocabulary is influenced by both German and Polish Most Kashubians declare Polish nationality and Kashubian ethnicity, and are considered both Polish and Kashubian but: on the 2002 census there was no option to declare one nationality and a different ethnicity, or more than one nationality

The Case of the Kashoubians

• • • •

history:

Kashubians are descendants of the Slavic Pomeranian tribes were at various times Polish and Danish vassals While most Slavic Pomeranians were assimilated during the medieval German settlement of Pomerania especially in Pomeralia some kept and developed their customs and became known as Kashubians since 1466 within Royal Prussia, since 1772 within West Prussia, since 1920 within the Polish Corridor of the Second Polish Republic, since 1939 within the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia of Nazi Germany, and since 1945 within the People's Republic of Poland

The Case of the Kashoubians

• • • • •

history:

During the Second World War, Kashubians were considered by the Nazis as being either of "German stock" or "extraction", or "inclined toward Germanness" and "capable of Germanisation", and thus classified third category of Deutsche Volksliste (German ethnic classification list) However, Kashubians who were suspected to support the Polish cause, particularly those with higher education, were arrested and executed (12,000 were executed) When integrated into Poland, Kashubian autonomy faced a Communist regime striving for ethnic homogenity Kashubians were sent to Silesian mines, where they met Silesians facing similar problems Lech Badkowski from the Kashubian opposition became the first spokesperson of Solidarnosc

The Case of the Kashoubians

• • •

language

Today, in some towns and villages in northern Poland, Kashubian is the second language spoken after Polish, and it is taught in regional schools.

Since 2005 Kashubian enjoys legal protection in Poland as an official regional language It is the only tongue in Poland with this status; granted by an act of the Polish Parliament on January 6, 2005

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPE Native people (sharing its area with other communities)

• • Aromanians • Bunjevci (Bunyevtsi) in Serbia • Cimbres • Crimea • Csángó • Ingria • Lipovians • Livonians • Lorraine - Moselle • Low Germans • Ludians • Mirandians • Mócheno •

Pomaks

• Vepsia • Votes • Walser

The Case of the Pomaks

Ethnographic map of European Turkey from the late 19th. century, showing the regions largely populated by Pomaks in brown

A Pomak bride from Ribnovo being made up for her ceremony Young Pomak women in traditional costume Pomak Men

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPE Nomadic or scattered people

• Roms • Yiddish

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPE Area with stong identity

• Aragon • Asturias • Azores • Canary Islands • Madeira •

Moravia

• Prussia • Savoy • Scania • Seto • Silesia • Võro

The Case of the Moravia

Moravia Czech: Morava; German: Mähren

The Case of the Moravia

• • • • • The Moravians are a Slavic ethnic group who speak various dialects of Czech Some Moravians regard themselves as an ethnically distinct group; others consider themselves to be ethnically Czech In the census of 1991, 1,362,000 (13.2%) of the Czech population described themselves as being of Moravian nationality In the census of 2001, this number had decreased to 380,000 (3.7% of the population) Moravia historically had a huge minority of ethnic Germans, although they were largely expelled after World War II

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPE OF CONFLICT Minority in search of autonomy

• Alsace • Asturias • Brittany

• Friuli

• Karelia • Sardinia • Savoy • Silesia

The Case of Friuli

Friulian coat of arms Location of historical region within the administrative region.

The Case of Friuli

• • • In 1815, the Congress of Vienna enacted the definitive union of Veneto and Friuli with Austrian Lombardy, to constitute the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia In 1866 central Friuli (today's province of Udine) and western Friuli (today's province of Pordenone) were joined Italy with Veneto after the Third Italian War of Independence While standard Italian is the primary official language of the region, several other regional languages and dialects are spoken in Friuli

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPE OF CONFLICT Minority in search of more recognition

• Aromanians • Cornwall • Grishun • Ladins • Lorraine - Moselle • Low Germans • Mirandians • Moravia • Occitania • Roms • Scania •

Sorbs

• Wallonia • Walser

The Case of the Sorbs

National costume of Lusatian Sorbs as traditionally worn in the northern part of Lusatia Bilingual names of streets in Cottbus

The Case of Sorbs

• • • • • • ca. 40,000 Upper Sorbs, 20,000 Lower Sorbs In 1018, on the strength of peace in Bautzen, Lusatia became a part of Poland; however, before 1031 it was returned to Germany At the beginning of the 16th century the whole Sorbian area, with the exception of Lusatia, underwent Germanization The Thirty Years War and the Black Death caused terrible devastation in Lusatia: almost half the Sorbs died In 1667 the Prince of Brandenburg, Frederick Wilhelm, ordered the immediate destruction of all Sorbian printed materials and banned saying masses in this language The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, gave part of Upper Lusatia to Saxony, but most of Lusatia to Prussia

The Case of the Sorbs

• • • • • From 1871 the whole of Lusatia became a part of united Germany and was divided between three parts: Silesia, Prussia and Saxony From 1871 the industrialization of the region and German immigration began; official Germanization intensified Although the Weimar Republic (1919) guaranteed constitutional minority rights, it did not practice them Throughout The Third Reich, Sorbian costume, culture, customs and even the language was said to be no indication of a non-German origin Young Sorbs enlisted in the Wehrmacht and were sent to the front

The Case of the Sorbs

• • • • The defeat of Nazi Germany changed the Sorbs’ situation considerably: those to the east of Neisse and Oder were expelled or assimilated by Poland regions in the German Democratic Republic) faced a large influx of expelled Germans and heavy industrialisation, which both forced Germanization East German authorities tried to counteract this development by creating a broad range of Sorbian institutions Sorbs were officially recognized as an ethnic minority, more than 100 Sorbian schools and several academic institutions were founded

The Case of the Sorbs

• • • • Sorbian Slovians caused the communist government of the GDR plenty of trouble, mainly because of the high levels of religious observance and resistance to the nationalisation of agriculture After the unification of Germany in 1990, Lusatians made efforts to create an autonomous administrative unit; however Helmut Kohl’s government did not agree to it Although Germany supports national minorities, Sorbs claim that their aspirations are not sufficiently fulfilled desire to unite Lusatia into one country has not been taken into consideration because Upper Lusatia still belongs to Saxony and Lower Lusatia to Brandenburg

The Case of the Sorbs

• • • an annual state grant of 15.6 million Euro by the Federal and the Saxon governments is fixed Liquidations of Sorbian schools under the pretext of financial difficulties take place Sorbs also called on Poland and Polish President Lech Kaczynski for protection and to represent them in talks with German state as unlike for example Danes have no state to help them against German authorities

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPE OF CONFLICT Minority in search of strong autonomy

• Aosta Valley • Canary Islands • Crimea

• Frisia

• Galicia • Man / Isle of Man • Sápmi (Lappland) • Wales

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPE Stateless Nation

• Alsace • Aosta Valley • Basque Country • Brittany • Cashoubs • Catalonia • Cornwall • Corsica • Faroe Islands • Flanders • Frisia • Friuli • Gagauzia • Galicia • Grishun • Karelia • Kosovo (Albanians) • Kurdistan • Ladins • Man / Isle of Man

• Occitania

• Ruthenians • Sápmi (Lappland) • Sardinia • Scotland • Sorbs • Transdniestr / Transnistria • Wales • Wallonia

Europe – Stateless Nations

The Case of Occitania

• • • • • area is situated in the southern half of France, includes Monaco, spans parts of Italy and Spain Occitania has been recognized as a cultural concept since the Middle Ages it has never been a legal nor a political entity under this name, although the territory was united in Roman times until the French conquest started in the 1200s Presently, about 3 million people out of 14 million in the area have a proficient knowledge of Occitan The Aran Valley of Spain is the only area where an Occitan dialect is an official language (along with Spanish and Catalan).

The Case of Occitania

• • • • According to the 1999 census, there are 610,000 native speakers and another million persons with some exposure to the language Native speakers of Occitan are to be found mostly in the older generations in France, Occitan is still not recognized as an official language, as the status of French has been constitutionally protected since 1992 Occitan activists want the French government to adopt Occitan as the second official language for seven regions representing the South of France

Stateless people in Europe

• A stateless person is someone with no citizenship or nationality - the state that gave their previous nationality has ceased to exist and there is no successor state or their nationality has been repudiated by their own state effectively making them refugees (e.g. ethnic Russians in Estonia and Latvia)

Stateless Person

• • • • People may be stateless also if they are members of a group which is denied citizen status in the country on whose territory they are born if they are born in disputed territories if they are born in an area ruled by an entity whose independence is not internationally recognized or if they are born on territory over which no modern state claims sovereignty

At home in Estonia? The Social Integration of ethnic Russians in the European Union‘s North-Eastern Border Region Denis Gruber, Dissertation, Institute of Sociology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg Scholarship by the Friedrich-Ebert-Foundation

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Fakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und Erziehungswissenschaften Institut für Soziologie „Zuhause in Estland? Eine Untersuchung zur sozialen Integration von ethnischen Russen in Estland.“

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Fakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und Erziehungswissenschaften Institut für Soziologie

Research Region

• particular socio-cultural region in Estonia as well as the European Union  Internal migration flows“ of the USSR result in the highest amount of non-titular ethnic population in the whole Europe    pedominant Russian-speaking area moreover: most urbanized region in Estonia (89 per cent) In 2007: 172,775 inhabitants: - 34,314 (19,7 Prozent) of inhabitants are ethnic Estonians - 122,482 persons are ethnic Russians     75,000 (40,3 %) are citizens of Estonia 34, 577 (19,9 %) are citizens of the Russian Federation 61,921 (35,6 %) with undertermined citizenship 4,000 are citizens of other nation-states

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Fakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und Erziehungswissenschaften Institut für Soziologie Ethnische Besonderheiten Estlands Ethnische Herkunft 1922 1959 1989 2000 2007 Esten Russen

969.976

87,6 %

892.653

74,6 %

963.281

61,5 %

935.884

68,2 %

921.908

68,6 %

91.109

8,2 %

240.227

20,1 %

474834

30,3 %

354.660

25,8 %

345.168

25,7 % Gesamt

1.107.059

1.196.791

1.565.662

1.372.071

1.344.684

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Fakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und Erziehungswissenschaften Institut für Soziologie Staatsbürgerschaftliche Besonderheiten Estlands

ethnische Russen im Jahr 2007:

39,5 %

estnische Staatsbürgerschaft

19,4 %

russische Staatsbürgerschaft 37,6 % keine Staatsbürgerschaft

3,5 %

andere Staatsbürgerschaft

Ethnic Russian Minority in Estonia

term is used for those who:  have an ethnic Russian migration background (even descendants of migrations; migrants of the 2nd or 3rd generation)  have citizenship of Estonia, Russia or are stateless (in Estonian legislation called „Aliens“)  are using the Russian language in everyday life as primary language

The question of citizenship

• members of the Russian group have been divided in two sub-groups: 1. Those who have been already lived in the First Estonian Republic (1918-1940) and their descendants) • 2. those who were comming to ESSR as labourforce in the course of the industrialisation process last group has been classified by conservative Estonian Politicians as a threat for the achieved national souveranity and where called from now on „Aliens“

Alien

• • Term „Alien „(Estonian „muulane“) is used for a „person of another nationalitaty („Alien Law” by July 1992) “An alien is a person who is not an Estonian citizen and aliens staying in Estonia are guaranteed rights and freedoms equal to those of Estonian citizens unless the constitution, this Act, other Acts or international agreements of Estonia provide otherwise. Aliens are guaranteed the rights and freedoms arising from the generally recognised rules of international law and international custom. Aliens staying in Estonia are required to observe the constitutional order and legislation of Estonia.”

Narva

„Path dependency“

• • • Use of the concept of „path dependency“ to investigate the Estonian transformation process requires to focus on the significance of historical (social, political and economic) contextes Includes to stress on formal and informal rules which were created through a long-term process

„Path dependency“

• practicized Estonian „ethno politics“ have to be seen in near context to the Soviet ethnicity- and nationality politics  until Estonain independence, ethnic relationships of autochthone Estonians and Russian migrants have been determined by political rulers in Moscow  Soviet ethnicity-and nationality politics pursued two core targets: 1. ideological and cultural „assimilation“ of the inhabitants in the single Soviet Union Republics 2. a forced industrialisation of the Soviet Union Republics

• • • Estonian transformation process has been controversilary discussed in literature because of ist heterogeneous development paths in the spheres of politics, economy and social integration economic studies: positive development of the „Baltic tiger“ through the carried out neoliberal „shock therapy“ sociological studies criticized that political rulers have been pursued ethno-nationalist aims (ethnic defined nation, integration problems of the Russian-speaking minority, „ethnic boundary constructions“ and social exclusion)

• • International organizations like AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL (2006), the IOM (2006) and REFUGEES INTERNATIONAL (2004) maintain that despite of an improved minority situation integration problems and smouldering ethnic conflicts between Estonians and Russians in the Estonian society furthermore exist example: demolition of the memorial of the „Bronze Soldier“ in April 2007

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Fakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und Erziehungswissenschaften Institut für Soziologie Systemintegration und die vier Dimensionen der Sozialintegration

Quelle: Esser (2001), S. 16

Integration  requires to distinguish between „systemic integration“ and „social integration“ of migrants and/or members of ethnic groups because: a common understanding of „integration“ and „inclusion“ would mean that the individual integration process in the „Lebenswelt“ is similarily to the inclusion of the subsystems in the Estonian titular society (special rights, occupying of certain positions, appropriation of important societal ressources)  Is succesful if ethic minority actors as well as the members of the titular society are similarly placed in the different positions of the labour market solution: integration approach of German scholar Hartmut Esser (1999, 2001)who differs between social and systemic integration

Systemic Integration

• • • takes place independently (anonymiously) from the motives and relationships of individual actors refers to the means integration in a social system like integration in the world-market, nation-state, international concerns, corporative actors or supra-national entities like the EU refers to particular mechanisms of the market, institutioanl laws of the nation-state and particular media resources (not mass media, but money)

Social Integration

• • • • focuses on motives, orientations, and purposes of individual actors, refers to the „embedding process“ of individual actors in a social system is associated with the grant of laws, learning of the titular population‘s language, embedding in the education system and the national employment market, interethnic friendships and identification with the nation-state Esser (2001): succesful „social integration“ of ethnic minorities can not be evaluated by their embedding in the „Lebenswelt“, but also by their inclusion in the sub-systems of the social system of the titular society and possibilities to control important resources in state and society

Dimensions of social integration

• • •

Placement

societal position of migrants and/or ethnic minorities in a social system: employment market positions (politics, administration, etc.) important for pursuing ressources bounded to certain laws, like citizenship, election laws • • •

Culturation

process of „adaption“ necessary knowledge and qualifications for the interaction in the titular society, like language often results in „acculturation“: semi or partial culturation

Dimensions of social integration

•

Interactions

helpful for minority actors to „come in contact“ with the members of the titular society •

Identification

emotional/identificative orientation of actors with the titular society as well as the society of origin

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Fakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und Erziehungswissenschaften Institut für Soziologie Forschungsfragen

•Platzierung: strukturelle Dimension Wie stellt sich die Platzierung ethnischer Russen in das politische und ökonomische System der estnischen Gesellschaft dar? Welche Faktoren fördern bzw. hemmen diese Form der Sozialintegration?

•Kulturation: kognitive Dimension Welche Aussagen können zur Akkulturationsbereitschaft ethnischer Russen getroffen werden? Wie vollzieht sich ihre sprachliche Assimilation?

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Fakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und Erziehungswissenschaften Institut für Soziologie Forschungsfragen

•Interaktion: soziale Dimension Wie stellt sich die Interaktion der ethnisch-russischen Minderheitengruppe mit der estnischen Mehrheitsbevölkerung dar? Welche regionalen Besonderheiten müssen beachtet werden?

•Identifikation: identifikative (emotionale) Dimension Über welche identifikativen Bezüge verfügen ethnische Russen mit der estnischen Aufnahmegesellschaft, der russischen Herkunftsgesellschaft und den Angehörigen der eigenen ethnischen Gruppe in Estland und Russland?

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Fakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und Erziehungswissenschaften Institut für Soziologie Platzierung

• Fremdexklusion und Selbstexklusion von Bedeutung • Staatsbürgerschaft als „soziale Schließung“ • Bedeutung der Sprachenpolitik für Inklusion und Exklusion • Staatsbürgerschaft als Ressource • Staatenlosigkeit als Resultat von Fremd- und Selbstexklusion • Problematik der „politischen Inklusion“ und „demokratischen Inklusion“ moderner Nationalstaaten

Self-Exclusion

• • • • • Motivs: - „trader’s dilemma“ (Evers&Schrader, 1995): ethnic minorities look for cultural distance with regard to the majority population and / or they do not assimilate because cultural distanciation is a strategy for solving problems broaden cope of action, status, and attention increasing cohesion and internal resources circumvent a political wanted assimilation (also citizenship)

but: total exclusion is almost impossible

Selbstexklusion

•

I: warum Sprachtestprüfung nach dem erstmaligen Nichtbestehen nicht wiederholen wird:

„Why? It is not my duty and task. Either we are citizens or not. For me it is protest. And they are threating me with penalties. But I am living here more than 25 years and 15 years within this state Estonia. I know that they are crushing me, but I have already learned to live under these circumstances. When I have failed the exam they told me: okay, you have tried it, that is why we do not punish you. According to the law I shall repeat the language exam after three month, but preparation and test will cost a lot of money again.“ (Interview 33) •

I: Pressure / crushing?:

„They do not ask if I am able to do a job, but they ask if I am able to speak the Estonian language. Noone asks which experiences I have in my daily life, in occupation, only the knowledge of Estonian language is important for them. They always asked me if I have the certification for beginner level; and I answered that I do not have one. They told me that I am a good person, that I have a gooa career but I can not find a job in a higher position because I do not have a valid certificaton of Estonian knowledge. I do not know if someone knows about it in Europe wht is going on here. These are restrictions and limitations of personal freedom and rights. It is discrimination against Russians in Estonia.“ (Interview 33)

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Fakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und Erziehungswissenschaften Institut für Soziologie Akkulturation

• Unterschiede zwischen beiden ethnischen Gruppen liegen in kultureller, vor allem sprachlicher Einbettung • Nordostregion nahezu ethnisch geschlossen • staatlicherseits erwarteter Sprachassimilation steht schwache Bereitschaft zur Sprachassimilation gegenüber • Kommunikation in der Muttersprache • „Überlegenheitsgefühle“ • Einfluss russischsprachiger Massenmedien

•

Migration-Story

I have worked here since 33 years. And I worked as Director for Quality Services. I came here during the Soviet period and you know that all the Russians here were brought in from all parts of the Soviet Union, that’s why we are a Russian-speaking community in this part of Estonia. I came from the Eastern part of the Soviet Union. I was born in the 1940s. My hometown is more than 8,000 kilometers far away from Narva. My father worked as an engineer in a mine and he worked in a mine for gold production. I came to Narva in 1974. I have married my wife. I was Ukrainian, but I was born in Russia. I came here after finishing education in a special institute. My wife is mixed by nationality. Her father is Estonian and her mother is Russian. She was also born in Russia, near the city of Orenburg. Her father was mechanic and has worked in a building company. And her family has migrated to this part of Estonia because they have found workplaces here. And I have married here and I have one son and one daughter. They both have already finished their studies at the Tartu University. My daughter is Philologist and lives in Tallinn and works for a Russian-speaking newspaper. So, she works as a Journalist. My son works now in Kohtla-Järve in a big American company. He is Chemist. After finishing University he worked here in Narva at our Regional Environment Department, but this Department has moved from Narva to Jöhvi, the capital of Ida-Virumaa.

Akkulturation: Sprache

• “For example me, I do not know the Estonian ABC until now. I simply do not know it. Maybe it is because our factory does not work with Estonian people. The reason is not that we do not want to have Estonian-speaking labor force but here are simply no Estonian-speakers. Maybe if you take our company. In Soviet time we have had 4,500 workers and only two of them were native Estonians. Now, we have only one. He is a very good worker. You can say that he is an ‘alien’. It has to do with the history of Estonia which is a traditional agricultural country. And most of Estonians were employed in the agricultural sector. You must know that today in Narva there are Estonians, but they are mostly working in the public sector like in the City administration. Of course, there are some Russians; I mean those with Russian names.” (Interview 39)

• „No one needs this language. With whom you shall speak in Estonian, especially in Narva. I have 60 programs in my home cable-TV, but there are only three programs in Estonian language and most of programs are in Russian language. And also the Estonian language is a very underdeveloped language. Still now they do not have technical words and it has to do with the agricultural past of the Estonian people. It is a problem for Estonians. And after the independence I took part in a special governmental commission and I could see when they have translated their laws and texts from Russian or English language in Estonian language that they had to take English synonyms or English words because they do not have technical words in Estonian. It is a big difference to the Russian language and the Russian-speakers because they are able to find Russian words for the new equipment and technical things, like mobilnik for mobile phones.” (Interview 39)

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Fakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und Erziehungswissenschaften Institut für Soziologie Identifikation

• divergierende Identifikationsmuster • Problematik der mentalen und psychischen „Anwesenheit“ • in zwei Gesellschaften • „zu Hause in Estland“ ? oder ! divergierende Identifikationsmuster • Individuell differenzierte Identifikationsmuster vs. kohärenter gruppenspezifischer Identifikationen • „Sicherheitsgefühle“ in Estland und Verbundenheit zur Herkunftsgesellschaft aufgrund grenzüberschreitender Kontakte und globaler Entwicklungen

"Minorities in Europe” Session 2:

National and Ethnic Minorities in Europe.

Minority Rights in Europe

Denis Gruber Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State University DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

The Internship Concept of the MA SES

How to Combine Theory with Practice?

Dr. Denis Gruber

minority rights

• a fter the decolonization period, the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the growing number of intra-state conflicts caused by the denial of the collective rights to minorities, the international community came back to focus on the collective dimension of minority rights • Minority rights are an essential part of the fundamental human rights in defence of human dignity against the state • compared with the classical individual human rights there are specific features of minority rights  religious activities  cultural  education facilities  language rights

minority protection based upon human rights at the international level:



in Art. 26 and 27 of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

•

Article 26

All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. •

Article 27

In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion, or to use their own language.

minority protection based upon human rights at the international level:

 the UN-Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national minorities of the 18 December 1992 • Article 1 States shall protect the existence and the national or ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic identity of minorities within their respective territories and shall encourage conditions for the promotion of that identity. States shall adopt appropriate legislative and other measures to achieve those ends. • Article 2 Persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities have the right to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, and to use their own language, in private and in public, freely and without interference or any form of discrimination.

minority protection based upon human rights at the international level:

 the UN-Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national minorities of the 18 December 1992 - the right to participate effectively in cultural, religious, social, economic and public life (Art. 2) - the right to participate effectively in decisions on the national and regional level concerning the minority (Art. 3) - the right to establish and maintain their own associations (Art. 4) - the right to establish and maintain, without any discrimination, free and peaceful contacts with other members of their group and with persons belonging to other minorities (Art. 5)

minority protection based upon human rights at the international level:

• prohibition against discrimination in Art. 14 of the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR) •

Article 14 The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status.

Protection of ethnic minorities in Europe

• • • • Since 1990 the protection of ethnic minorities in Europe has gained significant new momentum Research in European minorities increased since the political change set in in 1989/91 today there is more political transparency and correct demographic data collection and publication The information technology has added to the possibility to research and register also about ethnic groups hitherto unknown or forgotten

Minorities and European integration The EU and its phases of enlargement 1. EU-15 2003 2. EU-25 2004 3. EU-27 (2007?) Europe (39 states) Inhab itants

In 1000s 375.4

18 450.5

59 480.1

768.6

98 Minorities

Absolute number of minorities 73 156 187

329 Members of minorities

In 1000s 32.138

38.174

42.306

86,674.000

Share of minorities on total population in %

8,6 8,5 8,8

11,45

Source: Christoph Pan/Beate S. Pfeil (2003), National Minorities in Europe, Vienna, ETHNOS. Not included are the micro-states: Andorra, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican.

Minority issues: international or national?

Minority protection on the national level

National parliaments of the single European states  approve acts either for comprehensive regulations regarding the rights of all national minorities  enabling central or national governments to take action for promoting and protecting minorities  delegating the issue to a lower governmental level (regional, provincial, municipal)  The political representation of national minorities in parliaments and governments and its international implications is however a feature typically retained in the powers of the centre.

Minority issues: international or national?

• • • • •

Minority protection on the international level

Council of Europe: In the European context, minority rights are safeguarded primarily by the CoE’s Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (FCNM) other bodies are the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), the Committee of Experts of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, the Monitoring Committee of the Parliamentary Assembly OSCE, High Commissioner on National Minorities EU: does not have its own system of minority protection bilateral dimension

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

green OSCE participating States orange Partners for Co-operation

Membership

56 participating States 11 Partners for Co-operation

OSCE

Secretary General Leaders M. P. de Brichambaut Chairperson-in-Office Kanat Saudabayev Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights Janez Lenarčič Representative on Freedom of the Media High Commissioner on National Minorities Miklós Haraszti Knut Vollebæk as the CSCE Paris Charter 1 Helsinki Accords renamed as the OSCE Establishment July 1973 30 July – 1 August 1975 21 November 1990 1 January 1995

OSCE

• • • • • the world's largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization mandate includes issues such as arms control, human rights, freedom of the press and fair elections an ad hoc organization under the United Nations Charter (Chap. VIII) is concerned with early warning, conflict prevention, crisis management and post-conflict rehabilitation It was created during the Cold War era as an East-West forum

OSCE - Structure and institutions

• • • • • Political direction to the Organization is given by heads of state or government during summits (held as needed) high-level decision-making body of the Organization is the Ministerial Council, which meets at the end of every year at ambassadorial level the Permanent Council convenes weekly in Vienna and serves as the regular negotiating and decision-making body The post of Chairperson-in-Office is held by the minister for foreign affairs of the participating State which holds the chairmanship From 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2010 the Chairperson in-Office is the Finnish Minister for Foreign Affairs Alexander Stubb

High Commissioner on National Minorities

• The High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM) initiates and develops co-operation with other international organizations and institutions •  Präsentation

Early warning and early action

• HCNM has a twofold mission  to contain and de-escalate tensions  to act as a "tripwire," meaning that he is responsible for alerting the OSCE whenever such tensions threaten to develop to a level at which the High Commissioner cannot contain them with the means at his/her disposal

Independence

• • • • HCNM is allowed to operate with the necessary independence Involvement by the High Commissioner does not require the approval of the Permanent Council or of the State concerned but: HCNM cannot function properly without the political support of the participating States importance of such support becomes particularly acute when the High Commissioner presents reports and recommendations to the state concerned and, afterwards, to the Permanent Council

The High Commissioner

• • •

Knut Vollebaek

Ambassador Knut Vollebaek was appointed to the post of High Commissioner on National Minorities of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) for a three year term on 4 July 2007, succeeding Mr. Rolf Ekéus of Sweden the former Norwegian foreign minister (1997-2000) is internationally recognized for his role in the promotion of peace and security and the protection of human rights was the Chairman-in-Office of the OSCE in 1999, played a key role in attempting to find a peaceful solution to the Kosovo situation

The European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI)

• • • • • non-profit, independent foundation established in 1996 by the governments of Denmark, Germany and Schleswig-Holstein Centre is governed by a board composed of nine members: three from Denmark, three from Germany, one representative from the OSCE, one from the Council of Europe, and one from the EU ECMI is also particularly interested in the emerging convergence of standards between EU members and applicant states ECMI has been invited to consider standards implementation and majority-minority relations in particular states in cooperation with the government of that state and local groups.

Minority issues: international or national?

Minority protection on the international level

• • Framework Convention on the Protection of National Minorities (FCNM) in 1994  a tool of binding international law to protect minorities  Actually 32 states have ratified the FCNM, some more have signed it already and will proceed to ratification soon (but not France and Turkey, keep on sticking to their national doctrine denying the existence of national minorities) „Copenhagen Document of 1995“: full respect of institutional stability as a guarantee of democracy and rule of law, full respect of human rights and the protection of minorities

THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE'S FRAMEWORK CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF NATIONAL MINORITIES (FNCM)

• • • • • • is the most comprehensive multilateral treaty devoted to minority rights in Europe sets a number of principles according to which states are to develop specific policies to protect the rights of minorities adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe in 1994 Framework was to become active in 1998 accession to the Convention is obligatory, at least politically, for States that apply for membership in the Council of Europe Article 25 binds the member states to submit a report to the Council of Europe containing “full information on the legislative and other measures taken to give effect to the principles set out in this framework Convention”

Signatories in light green, member states in dark green, non-members of the Council of Europe in grey

Member Countries

• 33 countries Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina (non-member State), Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Malta, Moldova, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 

What is with France and Turkey?

FNCM

Article 1: “… the protection of national minorities is an integral part of the protection of human rights” Article 3:

“1. Every person belonging to a national minority shall have the right freely to choose to be treated or not to be treated as such and no disadvantage shall result from this choice or from the exercise of the rights which are connected to that choice.“ “2. Persons belonging to national minorities may exercise the rights and enjoy the freedoms flowing from the principles enshrined in the present framework Convention individually as well as in community with others.“

FNCM

Ratifying states agree to:

 promote the conditions necessary for minorities to maintain and develop their culture and identity (Article 5)  encourage tolerance, mutual respect, and understanding among all persons living on their territory (Article 6)  protect the rights to freedom of assembly, association, expression, thought, conscience, and religion (Articles 7, 8, and 9)  facilitate access to mainstream media and promote the creation and use of minority media (Article 9)

FNCM

• • • •

Ratifying states agree to:

recognize the right to use a minority language in private and in public and display information in the minority language (Articles 10 and 11) recognize officially surnames and first names in the minority language (Article 11) foster knowledge of the culture, history, language, and religion of both majority and minorities (Article 12) recognize the rights of minorities to set up and manage their own educational establishments and learn their own language (Articles 13 and 14)

FNCM

• • • •

Ratifying states agree to:

“endeavour to ensure” that there are adequate opportunities to be taught in the minority language, in areas traditionally inhabited by national minorities or where they live in “substantial numbers” (Article 14) “create the conditions necessary for the effective participation of persons belonging to national minorities in cultural, social and economic life, and in public affairs, in particular those affecting them” (Article 15) refrain from measures that alter the proportions of the population in areas inhabited by minorities (Article 16) not interfere with the rights to maintain contacts across frontiers and participate in the activities of national and international NGOs (Article 17)

Advisory Committee

• • • • • •

members:

composed of up to 18 members elected by the Committee of Ministers (the highest decisionmaking body in the Council of Europe)from candidates proposed by States Parties ergo: not all countries can have one of their nominees serve on the Committee those candidates who are not elected are placed on a reserve list of additional members On the basis of a rotation system, the composition of the Advisory Committee will change over time members serve in their individual capacities and are independent and impartial members do not represent their governments, but or although the Committee of Ministers relies heavily on the work of the Advisory Committee

Advisory Committee

tasks:

• • • • - prevailing international standard of recognition of minorities by acknowledging their self-identification exchange information with the states under review, to be invited to visit these states may organize meetings with government representatives and independent sources visits to States, during which the Committee meets with the government, NGOs, minority communities, academics, and other interested parties do what no other expert body of the CoE or UN has done to date: a thorough and systematic examination of every aspect of the implementation of the FCNM, including the issue of minority recognition

Advisory Committee

specific tasks: examination of state reports

• • • • • States that have ratified the Convention must file their first report within one year and every five years thereafter states have to publish their reports whenever requested by the Committee of Ministers The Advisory Committee may invite the Committee of Ministers to request ad hoc reports reports are made public by the Council of Europe and are available on the Council's web site ( www.coe.int

) initial reports should contain full information on legislative and other measures adopted by the State to realize the principles of the Convention

Advisory Committee

• • • AC’s work has enhanced the determination of the CoE’s most representative and political body, the Parliamentary Assembly (PACE) goal: adopt strongly-worded recommendations in favour of the recognition of all existing minorities In 2001, PACE adopted Recommendation 1492 (2001): Rights of national minorities, which stated:

„The Assembly condemns the denial of the existence of minorities and of minority rights in several Council of Europe member states and the fact that many minorities in Europe are not afforded adequate protection.“

Advisory Committee

evaluation:

• • since 2008, the AC’s opinions for all member states had been published following the HRC’s interpretation of Article 27, which includes migrant groups among minorities, the AC noted that in all states reviewed there were grounds for improvement, as none offered the FCNM’s protection to recent migrant communities