Chapter 8: Motivation Learning Theories

Denise Perkins Anni Mizuta Betty Krygsheld

What’s our motivation?

Personal Outcomes: Denise Perkins

 My interest in this chapter relates to motivating under achievers and at risk high school students.

 I am interested in learning new methods of motivating students to love to learn and to look at new ways to help them set realistic goals.  I would like to acquire tools that will stimulate or create the students intrinsic desire to succeed.

What’s our motivation?

Personal Outcomes: Anni Mizuta

– These are a few questions that drove me to want to pursue this chapter on motivational theory. Why are some students driven to learn and persistent when facing challenges and others give up? – What motivates students different? – are students who come from an “at risk” background or are learning disabled any different than “normal” students? What causes that perception that they are – What are the biggest factors that affect motivation & how can I adapt my classroom and curriculum to created a “learning environment”?

What’s our motivation?

Personal Outcomes: Betty Krygsheld



I chose to review this chapter

– because I am interested in moving students from the idea of learning for extrinsic reasons--- grades —praise---and toward the intrinsic reasons that we see so prevalent in young children.

– because I am curious about the child who sets high unattainable goals —only to fail.

Motivation

Introduction

Motivation to learn is acquired "through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers)."

- Jere Brophy, 1987

Motivation

Introduction At First…

Infants and young children appear to be propelled by curiosity, driven by an intense need to explore, interact with, and make sense of their environment.

"Rarely does one hear parents complain that their pre-schooler is unmotivated.“ - Raffini, 1993

Over time…

Unfortunately, their passion for learning frequently seems to shrink. Learning often becomes associated with drudgery instead of delight. A large number of students--more than one in four--leave school before graduating. Many more are physically present in the classroom but largely mentally absent; they fail to invest themselves fully in the experience of learning.

Motivating Influences

At Home

   Children's home environment shapes the initial constellation of attitudes they develop toward learning.

Children raised in a home that nurtures a sense of self-worth, competence, autonomy, and self-efficacy, they will be more apt to accept the risks inherent in learning. Children that do not view themselves as basically competent and able, their freedom to engage in academically challenging pursuits and capacity to tolerate and cope with failure are greatly diminished.

Motivating Influences

At School

  Once children start school, they begin forming beliefs about their school-related successes and failures. The sources to which children attribute their successes (commonly effort, ability, luck, or level of task difficulty) and failures (often lack of ability or lack of effort) have important implications for how they approach and cope with learning situations.

Motivating Influences

The Teacher

  The beliefs teachers themselves have about teaching and learning and the nature of the expectations they hold for students also exert a powerful influence. - Raffini "To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn." - Stipeck, 1988

Historical Perspectives

Drive theory Need-> Drive->Behavior Conditioning Theory Reinforcement beliefs ->Human Motivation Cognitive Consistency Theory Cognitive + Behaviors->motivation Balance Theory Individuals + situation + events -> cognitive balance

Historical Perspectives

Humanistic Theory



Maslow's hierarchy of needs

consisting of five levels: the four lower levels are grouped together as

deficiency needs

is often depicted as a pyramid associated with physiological needs, while the top level is termed

growth needs

associated with psychological needs.  While

deficiency needs

must be met,

growth needs

need for personal growth. are the  The basic concept is that the higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus once all the needs that are lower down in the pyramid are mainly or entirely satisfied .

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Achievement Motivation



Achievement Motivation:

"the generalized tendency to strive for success and choose goal oriented, success/failure activities," and it is developed early in life. - Slavin, 2006 

New Ideas:

– –

Psychological

needs as well as

physiological

needs impact motivation.

Individual differences are seen in a person’s psychological make up as compared to one’s physiological make up. Thus individual needs must be met.

– Individuals specific needs are acquired over time and can be shaped.

Achievement Motivation

Murray: Theory of Psycogenic Needs (1938)

 Murray focused on an individual’s

psychological

they relate to motivation. His research focused on needs as

3 important needs:

– – –

Dominance:

the need to be in control of the situation and others

Affiliation:

the need to form friendships

Achievement:

the need to meet or exceed standards  Devised the

TAT test

to measure the strength of the dominance, affiliation, and achievement needs in individual –

Weaknesses:

TAT test suffers from problems that include low reliability and low correlation with other achievement measures – Schunk, pg 342

Achievement Motivation

McClelland: Theory of Needs (1953)



McClelland furthered Murray’s work in several ways:

– – – Adapted the

TAT test

to specifically test for

achievement motivation.

Posited that, while all people have achievement motivation, some people have a higher achievement motivation.

Identified the characteristics of high achievers and believed that people could be taught to achieve

Achievement Motivation

Instructional Implications

 To develop a high sense of achievement the teacher must: – – – Encourage their children to attempt difficult but

realistic tasks.

Reward

and praise the child when success is achieved.

Not complain or punish when the child fails, but

encourage

the child to try again or try another method. - Morris,1995

Achievement Motivation

Atkinson: Expectancy Value Theory (1957)



What determines a student’s achievement motivation?

– Achievement behaviors are determined by achievement motives, expectancies for success, and incentive values.

Eccles, 2004 - Wigfield, Tonks,

expectancy for success

= an individual’s perception of their probability for success

incentive for success

= the desirability of success in a task versus the probability of success work 18 hours/day

Achievement Motivation

Atkinson: Expectancy Value Theory (1957)

•

Expectancy Value =

conflict between hope for success and fear of failure.

T s = M s X P s T = tendency to approach an achievement related goal X I s M = motivated to succeed P = probability of success I = incentive value of success •

People will be motivated to achieve the task they value and that they believe they can achieve

Schunk, 2004

Achievement Motivation

Instructional Implications

• Students must engage in work that is meaningful, but is gauged to their developmental level so as to reduce the fear of failure.

• The task must not be too easy because this reduces the satisfaction or value of the task.

• Repeated success builds the perception of competence.

• Self efficacy increases the likelihood of a student choosing to move on to more difficult tasks.

• Modify the environment - it must be positive with regard to education and point to the value of each educational domain.

Achievement Motivation

Contemporary Views: Eccles, Wigfield & Tonk

• • • •

What shapes our expectancy of success and our valuing of a task?

Task specific self concepts:

ability in a specific domain • “I’m just no good at math” an individuals perception of their

Task difficulty:

the individual's

perception

of the difficulty.

T

asks have

value

to an individual because of • The importance of doing well on the task • The task is of interest to the individual • The tasks have value relative to future goals

Eccles, Wigfield & Tonk believe these perceptions are shaped by the environment

Achievement Motivation

Instructional Implications: Eccles, Wigfield & Tonk

   Children’s expectancies for success and valuing of achievement are influenced by their previous performance.

– set reasonable goals that ensure likely success Variations in classroom environments influence children’s expectancies and values in positive and negative ways.

– strive to reflect positively on the study of all domains.

– – avoid putting students into situations (usually competitive) in which the student judges his ability in terms of how it compares to others There are gender differences in children’s beliefs and values about different activities that tend to conform to gender stereotypes.

– challenge the student to evaluate their progress in terms of previous performance. classrooms should be free of stereotypes

Attribution Theory



Attribution Theory:

explains how people view the

causes

behavior and outcomes of their 

Attributions are

: learner’s

perceived causes

various

factors

including of outcomes based on

ability, effort, task, luck, emotions, behavior

* see table 8.2, Schunk, pg 355

Attribution Theory cont.

Locus of Control & Naïve Analysis

OUTCOME = personal force + environmental factors internal external power motivation (abilities) (persistence)

External Factors:

outcomes

independent

of behavior

Internal Factors:

outcomes

contingent

on behavior

Attribution Theory cont.

Instructional Implications What we know:

 learner’s outcome expectancy & feeling of control drives behavior, actions and engagement  ^ pride when successful & outcomes are attributed to an

internal

cause  Generally girls attribute success to effort & boys to ability - Howe, Anne (1998)

What to Do:

 Use credible positive effort feedback * see app. 8.4, Schunk, pg 358  Link low achievement to low effort

NOT

low ability  Create an environment that rewards effort, not competitive ability

Social Cognitive Theory



Social Cognitive Theory:

Motivation is

goal directed

efficacy & attributions and

influenced by

expectations, “People will act in ways they believe will help attain their goals” - Schunk, 2004 

Social Comparison:

process of comparing ourselves to others – If model & observer are similar can improve confidence & motivation if successful OR can de-motivate if fail * Until about grade 5 students will not automatically compare and link success/failure to motivation and learning

Social Cognitive Theory

Instructional Implications



Create achievable

short term goals

increase self efficacy to



Use natural

social comparison

motivation and effort for

–

remember

student models must:  be perceived as having similar attributes to observers  succeed at given task

Goal Theory

Goal Orientations:

how different types of goals can affect behavior in achievement settings

Learning Goal:

focused on knowledge, behavior or skill wish to acquire     

Performance Goal:

focused on completing a task  Focus attention on process and strategies to achieve goal Often choose more challenging task Self regulation strategies are used to stay on task and towards goal Student feels more self efficacy Keeps high expectations for success     Can lead to social comparisons & low perception of ability if experience difficulty Avoid challenges/select easier task No persistence with mistakes Often has negative effect If task is difficult will attribute failure to task not effort - Huitt, 2001

Goal Theory

Conceptions of Ability Goal orientation

is

related

one’s idea if

intelligence

to one’s

theory

changes over time about  

Entity Theory:

intelligence is fixed, stable and doesn’t change over time or with conditions – Effort helps reach one’s limit – Difficulties are viewed as obstacles leading to low self efficacy and ineffective strategies

Incremental Theory:

equate intelligence with learning – – – Can increase with experience, effort and learning No real “limit” to intelligence Difficulties are seen as challenges and can raise self efficacy – More likely to adopt learning goals

Goal Theory

Instructional Implications

  

Create collaborative work activities

– task orientation fosters idea that success is based on effort and teamwork NOT ability

Female vs. Male feedback

– Be more specific with girls about how efforts are promoting performance and abilities

Help students set learning goals

– Don’t stress completion, early finishing – Do stress practice reasons, new skills, re-checking work

Perceptions of Control

Control Beliefs

People who believe they can control what they learn are more likely to than those that have a low sense of control over their actions .

3 types of perceived control



Strategy Beliefs:

success at school expectations about factors that influence   “to get good grades I’ll work hard”

Capacity Beliefs:

personal capabilities “I can’t work hard in school”

Control Beliefs:

expectations about doing well that aren’t associated to specific means “I can do well in school if I want to”

Perceptions of Control

Learned Helplessness

Students with

learned helplessness

feel as if they have

no control

over their surroundings and their education therefore, causing them to simply give up and withdraw themselves from situations which they may not succeed (Sasser, 2007).

Helpless Views:    

Personal

- they see themselves as the problem

Pervasive

- all aspects of their life are effected by the problem

Permanent

- the problem can not be fixed

No Connection

– don’t connect cause with outcome

* Note: this can occur in all, some or only one class

Perceptions of Control

Learned Helplessness Who’s at risk?

    Learning Disabled students are at high risk – Low self efficacy – Failures attributed to external causes or low ability Student’s who are more performance oriented & believe in entity theory of intelligence Student’s who fail many subjects or classes – Repeated failures only add to the helpless cycle Student’s with low reading ability – Competency in reading is required in many subjects to if viewed as low reader can affect more then reading class

Perceptions of Control

Learned Helplessness – Instructional Implications What to do:

From: Schunk, Sasser & Huitt   Use attributional feedback Give tasks that can be accomplished    Set achievable goals Think about how you create collaborative groups Use discovery teaching methods or inquiry techniques to gain student interest and motivation

Self-Concept



Self-concept:

collective self-perceptions- from experiences and reinforcements & evaluations from others. 

Includes:

self-esteem & self-confidence 

Resembles

self efficacy, and so is believed to be related to learning – due to it’s variable nature, there is no concrete research on how self-concept is related to learning – many of the suggestions for motivation and attributions will apply to building self-concept

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation



Intrinsic Motivation:

– – The desire to engage in activities because they are inherently pleasurable, regardless of external contingencies - Education Encyclopedia Involves a desire to engage in an activity for no obvious reward except task engagement itself - Deci, 1975 

Examples:

– – “Young children reach out and grab an object, turn it over and push it away in an effort to control it” - Schunk, 2004 The 4 year old who is full of “whys” - he is trying to understand the world around him.

– My son playing computer games - he is trying to control the world.

Intrinsic Motivation

Variety of Researcher’s Hypothesis

 Why are individuals intrinsically motivated?

– – – –

Control theory:

All human beings are born with five basic needs: survival, love, power, fun, and freedom. All human behavior is motivated by attempts to satisfy those needs.

- Glasser, 1985

Self determination:

All individuals have a need for competence and self determination. – Deci, 1980

Effectance Motivation:

All individuals have a need to interact with their environment. – White, 1959

Mastery motivation:

Children gain mastery skills by observing social models. The skills are internalized and become self-rewarding. – Harter, 1978 – Humans, as they interact with their environment, note an intrinsically motivated to reduce the incongruity.

incongruity

between prior experiences and new experiences. Individuals are – Hunt 1963

Intrinsic Motivation

Instructional Implications Can intrinsic motivation be fostered in all students regardless of age?

YES!!!

 schoolwork should be

meaningful & relevant

to the student – students should be empowered by giving them choice in their assignments 

extrinsic motivators

can be used to teach a concept until that concept has been internalized – intrinsic motivation is maintained only when students feel self-determined & the human strives to act on his own volition  set

learning goals

self-efficacy & provide

feedback

in a way that fosters – use self reflection in an effort to promote self efficacy

Intrinsic Motivation

Instructional Implications Don’t diminish intrinsic motivation!

 Intrinsic motivation is undermined when teachers structure an intrinsically interesting activity in a way that focuses on obtaining extrinsic rewards.

 Extrinsic rewards are task oriented. Students work intrinsically when the reward comes from working on the task.

 Expected, tangible rewards offered to students for simply doing a task diminishes intrinsic motivation.

- Schunk, 2004

Motivation and Self regulation



Motivation is linked to self regulation

– Individuals motivated to reach their goals engage in self regulatory activities motivation + self regulatory activities -> learning + attaining goals 

Volition

Mind =cognition Feeling = emotion Willing = motivation (ones desire, want, purpose) *

Volition

is the act of using the will

Motivation and Self regulation

Volition Control Strategies (Schunk, pg 385) Motivation Control Emotional Control

      Set competencies Escalate goals by prioritizing their value Make work fun and challenging Planning to achieve goal Self instruct Analyze failure and redirect for second try       Count to 10 in your head Control breathing Generate diversions Visualize success Recall strengths Create ways to eliminate negative feelings

Motivation and Self regulation

Self Schemas Self Schema

:  Cognitive manifestation of enduring goals, aspirations, motives, fears & threats – concepts of ourselves in different situations – mediates the link between situations & behavior  Organized knowledge structure with multiple links and multiple goals  Possible self - what one might become

Motivation and Self regulation

Help Seeking



Help seeking:

a complex activity that includes more than a verbal request for assistance  Students who are task oriented and have higher self efficacy are more apt to seek help to determine their correctness  Different motivational patterns will promote different help seeking strategies

Pearls -

what to remember…

  

General Strategies

Help students find personal meaning and value in the material.

Make students active participants in learning. Ask students to analyze what makes their classes more or less "motivating." 

Incorporate Instructional Behaviors That Motivate Students

Hold high but realistic expectations for your students.    Help students set achievable goals for themselves Tell students what they need to do to succeed in your course. Be enthusiastic about your subject.

Pearls -

what to remember…

  

Structure the Course to Motivate Students

Work from students' strengths and interests. Vary your teaching methods.

Connect learning with student needs.   

De-emphasize Grades

Emphasize mastery and learning rather than grades.

Avoid using grades as threats.

Focus on effort, not ability.

Pearls -

what to remember…

   

Motivate Students by Responding to Their Work

Give students feedback as quickly as possible.

Reward success & effort.

Be specific when giving negative feedback.

Feedback needs to be credible and based on latest efforts and achievements.   

Create a “learning” environment

Help students set learning goals. Don’t stress getting tasks “done”, rather stress learning happening during the task. Use collaboration & social motivation to motivate.

References

Alker, Henry (1969). A comparison of the

Atkinson

-

McClelland

and Kogan-Wallach formulations. Journal of Personality.37 Issue 2 . 207 Brophy, Jere. ON MOTIVATING STUDENTS. Occasional Paper No. 101. East Lansing, Michigan: Institute for Research on Teaching, Michigan State University, October 1987. 73 pages. ED 276 724. Glasser, William.

The Quality School

. New York: Harper & Row. 1990.

Graham, S.(2007) Motivation - instruction, self-regulated learning.

Retrieved July 19,2007, from http://education.stateuniversity.com/ Howe, A. (1998). Adolescents’ Motivation, Behavior and Achievement in Science. Retrieved July 22, 2007 from http://www.narst.org/publications/research/Adolescent.cfm Huitt, W. (2001). Motivation to learn: An overview.

Educational Psychology Interactive

. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved July 22, 2007 from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/motivation/motivate.html

Ormond, Jeanne Ellis. (2003). "Educational Psychology: Developing Learners" Fourth Edition. Merrill Prentice Hall. Raffini, James. WINNERS WITHOUT LOSERS: STRUCTURES AND STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING STUDENT MOTIVATION TO LEARN. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1993. 286 pages.

Sasser, A. (2006) Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Chapter 7 Supplemental Materials. Retrieved July 18, 2007 from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_and_Cultural_Foundations_of_American_Education

References

Schunk, Dale H. (2004 Learning theories An educational perspective. New Jersey:Pearson Education, Inc.

Slavin R.E. (2007) Slavin on-line glossary. Retrieved July 19,2007, from http://www.abacon.com/slavin/vocab.html

Spevak, P. A., Ph.D. & Karinch. (2000). "Empowering Underachievers" First Edition. New Horizon Press. Stipek, Deborah. MOTIVATION TO LEARN: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988. 178 pages. Sternberg, Robert J. (1990) Pathways to psychology. Harcourt College Publishers.

Wigfield, A. Tonks, S. & Eccles, J.S. (2004). Expectancy-value theory in cross-cultural perspective. Retrieved July 19 2007, from

education.umd.edu/EDHD/.../Wigfield/Wigfield__Tonks__Eccles__2004_.pdf

Wikpedia 2007 Photo David McClelland 21:40, 18 March 2006 . . MSchnitzler2000 . . 167 ×215 (19,825 bytes) (the American psychologist David McClelland "Copyright (c) 2005 by Cruise Scientific.