Transcript Motivation Chapter 8 Learning Theories
Chapter 8: Motivation Learning Theories
Denise Perkins Anni Mizuta Betty Krygsheld
What’s our motivation?
Personal Outcomes: Denise Perkins
My interest in this chapter relates to motivating under achievers and at risk high school students.
I am interested in learning new methods of motivating students to love to learn and to look at new ways to help them set realistic goals. I would like to acquire tools that will stimulate or create the students intrinsic desire to succeed.
What’s our motivation?
Personal Outcomes: Anni Mizuta
– These are a few questions that drove me to want to pursue this chapter on motivational theory. Why are some students driven to learn and persistent when facing challenges and others give up? – What motivates students different? – are students who come from an “at risk” background or are learning disabled any different than “normal” students? What causes that perception that they are – What are the biggest factors that affect motivation & how can I adapt my classroom and curriculum to created a “learning environment”?
What’s our motivation?
Personal Outcomes: Betty Krygsheld
I chose to review this chapter
– because I am interested in moving students from the idea of learning for extrinsic reasons--- grades —praise---and toward the intrinsic reasons that we see so prevalent in young children.
– because I am curious about the child who sets high unattainable goals —only to fail.
Motivation
Introduction
Motivation to learn is acquired "through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers)."
- Jere Brophy, 1987
Motivation
Introduction At First…
Infants and young children appear to be propelled by curiosity, driven by an intense need to explore, interact with, and make sense of their environment.
"Rarely does one hear parents complain that their pre-schooler is unmotivated.“ - Raffini, 1993
Over time…
Unfortunately, their passion for learning frequently seems to shrink. Learning often becomes associated with drudgery instead of delight. A large number of students--more than one in four--leave school before graduating. Many more are physically present in the classroom but largely mentally absent; they fail to invest themselves fully in the experience of learning.
Motivating Influences
At Home
Children's home environment shapes the initial constellation of attitudes they develop toward learning.
Children raised in a home that nurtures a sense of self-worth, competence, autonomy, and self-efficacy, they will be more apt to accept the risks inherent in learning. Children that do not view themselves as basically competent and able, their freedom to engage in academically challenging pursuits and capacity to tolerate and cope with failure are greatly diminished.
Motivating Influences
At School
Once children start school, they begin forming beliefs about their school-related successes and failures. The sources to which children attribute their successes (commonly effort, ability, luck, or level of task difficulty) and failures (often lack of ability or lack of effort) have important implications for how they approach and cope with learning situations.
Motivating Influences
The Teacher
The beliefs teachers themselves have about teaching and learning and the nature of the expectations they hold for students also exert a powerful influence. - Raffini "To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn." - Stipeck, 1988
Historical Perspectives
Drive theory Need-> Drive->Behavior Conditioning Theory Reinforcement beliefs ->Human Motivation Cognitive Consistency Theory Cognitive + Behaviors->motivation Balance Theory Individuals + situation + events -> cognitive balance
Historical Perspectives
Humanistic Theory
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
consisting of five levels: the four lower levels are grouped together as
deficiency needs
is often depicted as a pyramid associated with physiological needs, while the top level is termed
growth needs
associated with psychological needs. While
deficiency needs
must be met,
growth needs
need for personal growth. are the The basic concept is that the higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus once all the needs that are lower down in the pyramid are mainly or entirely satisfied .
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Achievement Motivation
Achievement Motivation:
"the generalized tendency to strive for success and choose goal oriented, success/failure activities," and it is developed early in life. - Slavin, 2006
New Ideas:
– –
Psychological
needs as well as
physiological
needs impact motivation.
Individual differences are seen in a person’s psychological make up as compared to one’s physiological make up. Thus individual needs must be met.
– Individuals specific needs are acquired over time and can be shaped.
Achievement Motivation
Murray: Theory of Psycogenic Needs (1938)
Murray focused on an individual’s
psychological
they relate to motivation. His research focused on needs as
3 important needs:
– – –
Dominance:
the need to be in control of the situation and others
Affiliation:
the need to form friendships
Achievement:
the need to meet or exceed standards Devised the
TAT test
to measure the strength of the dominance, affiliation, and achievement needs in individual –
Weaknesses:
TAT test suffers from problems that include low reliability and low correlation with other achievement measures – Schunk, pg 342
Achievement Motivation
McClelland: Theory of Needs (1953)
McClelland furthered Murray’s work in several ways:
– – – Adapted the
TAT test
to specifically test for
achievement motivation.
Posited that, while all people have achievement motivation, some people have a higher achievement motivation.
Identified the characteristics of high achievers and believed that people could be taught to achieve
Achievement Motivation
Instructional Implications
To develop a high sense of achievement the teacher must: – – – Encourage their children to attempt difficult but
realistic tasks.
Reward
and praise the child when success is achieved.
Not complain or punish when the child fails, but
encourage
the child to try again or try another method. - Morris,1995
Achievement Motivation
Atkinson: Expectancy Value Theory (1957)
What determines a student’s achievement motivation?
– Achievement behaviors are determined by achievement motives, expectancies for success, and incentive values.
Eccles, 2004 - Wigfield, Tonks,
expectancy for success
= an individual’s perception of their probability for success
incentive for success
= the desirability of success in a task versus the probability of success work 18 hours/day
Achievement Motivation
Atkinson: Expectancy Value Theory (1957)
•
Expectancy Value =
conflict between hope for success and fear of failure.
T s = M s X P s T = tendency to approach an achievement related goal X I s M = motivated to succeed P = probability of success I = incentive value of success •
People will be motivated to achieve the task they value and that they believe they can achieve
Schunk, 2004
Achievement Motivation
Instructional Implications
• Students must engage in work that is meaningful, but is gauged to their developmental level so as to reduce the fear of failure.
• The task must not be too easy because this reduces the satisfaction or value of the task.
• Repeated success builds the perception of competence.
• Self efficacy increases the likelihood of a student choosing to move on to more difficult tasks.
• Modify the environment - it must be positive with regard to education and point to the value of each educational domain.
Achievement Motivation
Contemporary Views: Eccles, Wigfield & Tonk
• • • •
What shapes our expectancy of success and our valuing of a task?
Task specific self concepts:
ability in a specific domain • “I’m just no good at math” an individuals perception of their
Task difficulty:
the individual's
perception
of the difficulty.
T
asks have
value
to an individual because of • The importance of doing well on the task • The task is of interest to the individual • The tasks have value relative to future goals
Eccles, Wigfield & Tonk believe these perceptions are shaped by the environment
Achievement Motivation
Instructional Implications: Eccles, Wigfield & Tonk
Children’s expectancies for success and valuing of achievement are influenced by their previous performance.
– set reasonable goals that ensure likely success Variations in classroom environments influence children’s expectancies and values in positive and negative ways.
– strive to reflect positively on the study of all domains.
– – avoid putting students into situations (usually competitive) in which the student judges his ability in terms of how it compares to others There are gender differences in children’s beliefs and values about different activities that tend to conform to gender stereotypes.
– challenge the student to evaluate their progress in terms of previous performance. classrooms should be free of stereotypes
Attribution Theory
Attribution Theory:
explains how people view the
causes
behavior and outcomes of their
Attributions are
: learner’s
perceived causes
various
factors
including of outcomes based on
ability, effort, task, luck, emotions, behavior
* see table 8.2, Schunk, pg 355
Attribution Theory cont.
Locus of Control & Naïve Analysis
OUTCOME = personal force + environmental factors internal external power motivation (abilities) (persistence)
External Factors:
outcomes
independent
of behavior
Internal Factors:
outcomes
contingent
on behavior
Attribution Theory cont.
Instructional Implications What we know:
learner’s outcome expectancy & feeling of control drives behavior, actions and engagement ^ pride when successful & outcomes are attributed to an
internal
cause Generally girls attribute success to effort & boys to ability - Howe, Anne (1998)
What to Do:
Use credible positive effort feedback * see app. 8.4, Schunk, pg 358 Link low achievement to low effort
NOT
low ability Create an environment that rewards effort, not competitive ability
Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive Theory:
Motivation is
goal directed
efficacy & attributions and
influenced by
expectations, “People will act in ways they believe will help attain their goals” - Schunk, 2004
Social Comparison:
process of comparing ourselves to others – If model & observer are similar can improve confidence & motivation if successful OR can de-motivate if fail * Until about grade 5 students will not automatically compare and link success/failure to motivation and learning
Social Cognitive Theory
Instructional Implications
Create achievable
short term goals
increase self efficacy to
Use natural
social comparison
motivation and effort for
–
remember
student models must: be perceived as having similar attributes to observers succeed at given task
Goal Theory
Goal Orientations:
how different types of goals can affect behavior in achievement settings
Learning Goal:
focused on knowledge, behavior or skill wish to acquire
Performance Goal:
focused on completing a task Focus attention on process and strategies to achieve goal Often choose more challenging task Self regulation strategies are used to stay on task and towards goal Student feels more self efficacy Keeps high expectations for success Can lead to social comparisons & low perception of ability if experience difficulty Avoid challenges/select easier task No persistence with mistakes Often has negative effect If task is difficult will attribute failure to task not effort - Huitt, 2001
Goal Theory
Conceptions of Ability Goal orientation
is
related
one’s idea if
intelligence
to one’s
theory
changes over time about
Entity Theory:
intelligence is fixed, stable and doesn’t change over time or with conditions – Effort helps reach one’s limit – Difficulties are viewed as obstacles leading to low self efficacy and ineffective strategies
Incremental Theory:
equate intelligence with learning – – – Can increase with experience, effort and learning No real “limit” to intelligence Difficulties are seen as challenges and can raise self efficacy – More likely to adopt learning goals
Goal Theory
Instructional Implications
Create collaborative work activities
– task orientation fosters idea that success is based on effort and teamwork NOT ability
Female vs. Male feedback
– Be more specific with girls about how efforts are promoting performance and abilities
Help students set learning goals
– Don’t stress completion, early finishing – Do stress practice reasons, new skills, re-checking work
Perceptions of Control
Control Beliefs
People who believe they can control what they learn are more likely to than those that have a low sense of control over their actions .
3 types of perceived control
Strategy Beliefs:
success at school expectations about factors that influence “to get good grades I’ll work hard”
Capacity Beliefs:
personal capabilities “I can’t work hard in school”
Control Beliefs:
expectations about doing well that aren’t associated to specific means “I can do well in school if I want to”
Perceptions of Control
Learned Helplessness
Students with
learned helplessness
feel as if they have
no control
over their surroundings and their education therefore, causing them to simply give up and withdraw themselves from situations which they may not succeed (Sasser, 2007).
Helpless Views:
Personal
- they see themselves as the problem
Pervasive
- all aspects of their life are effected by the problem
Permanent
- the problem can not be fixed
No Connection
– don’t connect cause with outcome
* Note: this can occur in all, some or only one class
Perceptions of Control
Learned Helplessness Who’s at risk?
Learning Disabled students are at high risk – Low self efficacy – Failures attributed to external causes or low ability Student’s who are more performance oriented & believe in entity theory of intelligence Student’s who fail many subjects or classes – Repeated failures only add to the helpless cycle Student’s with low reading ability – Competency in reading is required in many subjects to if viewed as low reader can affect more then reading class
Perceptions of Control
Learned Helplessness – Instructional Implications What to do:
From: Schunk, Sasser & Huitt Use attributional feedback Give tasks that can be accomplished Set achievable goals Think about how you create collaborative groups Use discovery teaching methods or inquiry techniques to gain student interest and motivation
Self-Concept
Self-concept:
collective self-perceptions- from experiences and reinforcements & evaluations from others.
Includes:
self-esteem & self-confidence
Resembles
self efficacy, and so is believed to be related to learning – due to it’s variable nature, there is no concrete research on how self-concept is related to learning – many of the suggestions for motivation and attributions will apply to building self-concept
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation:
– – The desire to engage in activities because they are inherently pleasurable, regardless of external contingencies - Education Encyclopedia Involves a desire to engage in an activity for no obvious reward except task engagement itself - Deci, 1975
Examples:
– – “Young children reach out and grab an object, turn it over and push it away in an effort to control it” - Schunk, 2004 The 4 year old who is full of “whys” - he is trying to understand the world around him.
– My son playing computer games - he is trying to control the world.
Intrinsic Motivation
Variety of Researcher’s Hypothesis
Why are individuals intrinsically motivated?
– – – –
Control theory:
All human beings are born with five basic needs: survival, love, power, fun, and freedom. All human behavior is motivated by attempts to satisfy those needs.
- Glasser, 1985
Self determination:
All individuals have a need for competence and self determination. – Deci, 1980
Effectance Motivation:
All individuals have a need to interact with their environment. – White, 1959
Mastery motivation:
Children gain mastery skills by observing social models. The skills are internalized and become self-rewarding. – Harter, 1978 – Humans, as they interact with their environment, note an intrinsically motivated to reduce the incongruity.
incongruity
between prior experiences and new experiences. Individuals are – Hunt 1963
Intrinsic Motivation
Instructional Implications Can intrinsic motivation be fostered in all students regardless of age?
YES!!!
schoolwork should be
meaningful & relevant
to the student – students should be empowered by giving them choice in their assignments
extrinsic motivators
can be used to teach a concept until that concept has been internalized – intrinsic motivation is maintained only when students feel self-determined & the human strives to act on his own volition set
learning goals
self-efficacy & provide
feedback
in a way that fosters – use self reflection in an effort to promote self efficacy
Intrinsic Motivation
Instructional Implications Don’t diminish intrinsic motivation!
Intrinsic motivation is undermined when teachers structure an intrinsically interesting activity in a way that focuses on obtaining extrinsic rewards.
Extrinsic rewards are task oriented. Students work intrinsically when the reward comes from working on the task.
Expected, tangible rewards offered to students for simply doing a task diminishes intrinsic motivation.
- Schunk, 2004
Motivation and Self regulation
Motivation is linked to self regulation
– Individuals motivated to reach their goals engage in self regulatory activities motivation + self regulatory activities -> learning + attaining goals
Volition
Mind =cognition Feeling = emotion Willing = motivation (ones desire, want, purpose) *
Volition
is the act of using the will
Motivation and Self regulation
Volition Control Strategies (Schunk, pg 385) Motivation Control Emotional Control
Set competencies Escalate goals by prioritizing their value Make work fun and challenging Planning to achieve goal Self instruct Analyze failure and redirect for second try Count to 10 in your head Control breathing Generate diversions Visualize success Recall strengths Create ways to eliminate negative feelings
Motivation and Self regulation
Self Schemas Self Schema
: Cognitive manifestation of enduring goals, aspirations, motives, fears & threats – concepts of ourselves in different situations – mediates the link between situations & behavior Organized knowledge structure with multiple links and multiple goals Possible self - what one might become
Motivation and Self regulation
Help Seeking
Help seeking:
a complex activity that includes more than a verbal request for assistance Students who are task oriented and have higher self efficacy are more apt to seek help to determine their correctness Different motivational patterns will promote different help seeking strategies
Pearls -
what to remember…
General Strategies
Help students find personal meaning and value in the material.
Make students active participants in learning. Ask students to analyze what makes their classes more or less "motivating."
Incorporate Instructional Behaviors That Motivate Students
Hold high but realistic expectations for your students. Help students set achievable goals for themselves Tell students what they need to do to succeed in your course. Be enthusiastic about your subject.
Pearls -
what to remember…
Structure the Course to Motivate Students
Work from students' strengths and interests. Vary your teaching methods.
Connect learning with student needs.
De-emphasize Grades
Emphasize mastery and learning rather than grades.
Avoid using grades as threats.
Focus on effort, not ability.
Pearls -
what to remember…
Motivate Students by Responding to Their Work
Give students feedback as quickly as possible.
Reward success & effort.
Be specific when giving negative feedback.
Feedback needs to be credible and based on latest efforts and achievements.
Create a “learning” environment
Help students set learning goals. Don’t stress getting tasks “done”, rather stress learning happening during the task. Use collaboration & social motivation to motivate.
References
Alker, Henry (1969). A comparison of the
Atkinson
-
McClelland
and Kogan-Wallach formulations. Journal of Personality.37 Issue 2 . 207 Brophy, Jere. ON MOTIVATING STUDENTS. Occasional Paper No. 101. East Lansing, Michigan: Institute for Research on Teaching, Michigan State University, October 1987. 73 pages. ED 276 724. Glasser, William.
The Quality School
. New York: Harper & Row. 1990.
Graham, S.(2007) Motivation - instruction, self-regulated learning.
Retrieved July 19,2007, from http://education.stateuniversity.com/ Howe, A. (1998). Adolescents’ Motivation, Behavior and Achievement in Science. Retrieved July 22, 2007 from http://www.narst.org/publications/research/Adolescent.cfm Huitt, W. (2001). Motivation to learn: An overview.
Educational Psychology Interactive
. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved July 22, 2007 from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/motivation/motivate.html
Ormond, Jeanne Ellis. (2003). "Educational Psychology: Developing Learners" Fourth Edition. Merrill Prentice Hall. Raffini, James. WINNERS WITHOUT LOSERS: STRUCTURES AND STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING STUDENT MOTIVATION TO LEARN. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1993. 286 pages.
Sasser, A. (2006) Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Chapter 7 Supplemental Materials. Retrieved July 18, 2007 from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_and_Cultural_Foundations_of_American_Education
References
Schunk, Dale H. (2004 Learning theories An educational perspective. New Jersey:Pearson Education, Inc.
Slavin R.E. (2007) Slavin on-line glossary. Retrieved July 19,2007, from http://www.abacon.com/slavin/vocab.html
Spevak, P. A., Ph.D. & Karinch. (2000). "Empowering Underachievers" First Edition. New Horizon Press. Stipek, Deborah. MOTIVATION TO LEARN: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988. 178 pages. Sternberg, Robert J. (1990) Pathways to psychology. Harcourt College Publishers.
Wigfield, A. Tonks, S. & Eccles, J.S. (2004). Expectancy-value theory in cross-cultural perspective. Retrieved July 19 2007, from
education.umd.edu/EDHD/.../Wigfield/Wigfield__Tonks__Eccles__2004_.pdf
Wikpedia 2007 Photo David McClelland 21:40, 18 March 2006 . . MSchnitzler2000 . . 167 ×215 (19,825 bytes) (the American psychologist David McClelland "Copyright (c) 2005 by Cruise Scientific.