Transcript Developing Management Skill

Developing Management
Skills (DMS)
Whetten & Cameron, 2002
Prefácio
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Desafios do novo milénio
Antecedentes do programa adoptado
Nota breve aos professores
Organização do material
Objectivos deste curso
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1. Desafios do novo milénio
Como faço com que o meu pessoal aceite esta
abordagem nova?
 Como explico a necessidade de mudança aos
mais velhos, sem criar uma reacção defensiva?
 Como ajudo os sobreviventes de um processo de
downsizing a lidar com os sentimentos de dor,
perda e culpa?
 Como uso as retribuições organizacionais para
reforçar a necessidade de mudança?

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1. Desafios do novo milénio
Downsizing
 Reengineering
 6-sigma quality
efforts
 Speed-to-market
initiatives

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Motivar
 Comunicar
 Tomar decisões
 Resolver conflitos

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1. Desafios do novo milénio
Common sense ain’t
necessarily common
practice.
 Will Rogers

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O senso comum não é
necessariamente a
prática comum.
 Will Rogers

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1. Desafios do novo milénio

As melhores práticas
– Eficiência
– Qualidade mundial
– Satisfação dos clientes





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Aceitar a necessidade de
mudança
Compreender qualquer
nova mudança
Obter o compromisso de
implementar a proposta
Gerir o período de
transição eficazmente
Institucionalizar a nova
abordagem
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1. Desafios do novo milénio

Good ideas are not in
scarce supply.

As ideias boas não
são escassas.

What is rare is the
ability to translate a
good idea into
accepted practice.

O que é raro é a
capacidade de
traduzir uma ideia
boa em prática aceite.
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1. Desafios do novo milénio
Avaliações de desempenho
 Reuniões difíceis com o pessoal
 Conversações com clientes irados
 Marcação de reuniões com a secretária
 Sessões de aconselhamento com
empregados perturbados

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2. Antecedentes

Princípios de gestão
– falta de fundamentos teóricos e de pesquisa

Abordagem da teoria da gestão e das
organizações
– falta de relevância prática

Abordagem do comportamento organizacional
– redundância

Abordagem da aprendizagem “experiencial”
– jogos, simulações, discussão de casos
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2. Antecedentes deste programa
Sociologia
 Administração
industrial
 Comportamento
organizacional (OB)
 Psicologia industrial e
organizacional

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Jogos
 Casos
 Exercícios de grupo

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3. Nota breve aos professores




Antigamente
Melhoria do ensino
Observe os melhores
professores
Depois reproduza
– o seu estilo
– as suas técnicas



– atitudes
– aptidões
– conhecimentos


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Modernamente
Aprendizagem do aluno
Imagine que
os seus aluno necessitam
Depois concentre todos
os aspectos do curso no
alcance desse resultado
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3. Nota breve aos professores
Students learn what
they care about.
 They remember what
they understand.
 (Ericksen, 1984: 51)

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Os alunos aprendem
aquilo que lhes
interessa.
 Eles lembram-se
daquilo que
compreendem.
 (Ericksen, 1984: 51)

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3. Nota breve aos professores

All genuine learning is
active, not passive.

Toda a aprendizagem
genuina é activa, não
passiva.

It is a process of
discovery in which the
student is the main
agent, not the teacher.

A aprendizagem é um
processo de descoberta
no qual o agente principal
é o aluno, não o
professor.
(Adler, 1982)
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(Adler, 1982)
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3. Nota breve aos professores
A aprendizagem não é um desporto de massas, de
espectadores.
Os alunos não aprendem muito só por se sentarem numa
sala de aulas a ouvir os professores, a memorizar os
exercícios pré-elaborados e a vomitar as respostas.
Eles devem falar acerca do que vão aprendendo, escrever
acerca disso, relacionar com as suas experiências do
passado e aplicar às suas vidas diárias.
Eles devem tornar parte de si mesmos tudo o que
aprendam.
(Chickering & Gamson, 1987: 3)
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3. Nota breve aos professores
Os alunos envolvem-se em algo mais do que a audição passiva da
matéria.
Eles envolvem-se em actividades de leitura, escrita e discussão.
Enfatisa-se menos a transmissão da matéria, mais o desenvolvimento
das aptidões do aluno.
Realça-se o desenvolvimento de valores e atitudes.
A motivação dos alunos é maior entre os mais adultos.
Os alunos procuram retroalimentação imediata do seu instrutor e dos
seus pares (em contraste com o desfazamento da vida real).
Os alunos envolvem-se em pensamentos de ordem mais elevada
(análise, síntese e avaliação de situações).
(Bonwell & Eison, 1991: 1-2)
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3. Nota breve aos professores:
“Learning by doing”
One must learn by doing the thing,
for though you think you know it
—you have no certainty until you try.
(Sophocles, 5th century BC)
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3. Nota breve aos professores:
Barreiras
Por que é que a aprendizagem activa
ainda é vista como a excepção à regra na
ensino universitário?
 Porque existem barreiras à abordagem
activa

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3. Nota breve aos professores
4.
1.
2.
3.
O professor tem dificuldade
em cobrir o conteúdo do
curso no tempo disponível.
A concepção de estratégias
de aprendizagem activas
exige muita preparação
antes de aulas.
Turmas de dimensão grande
dificultam a implementação
de estratégias de
aprendizagem activas.
5.
6.
Acerca de si mesma, a classe
dos professores pensa ser boa
ensinante.
Há falta de material ou
equipamentos necessários
para dar suporte às
abordagens de aprendizagem
activa.
Por vezes, os alunos resistem
a aulas que não sejam de
prelecção.
(Benwell & Eison, 1991: 53-64)
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4. Organização do material

Pessoal
– Desenvolvimento do autoconhecimento
– Gestão do stresse pessoal
– Resolução de problemas analítica e criativamente

Interpessoal
–
–
–
–

Treino, aconselhamento e comunicação de suporte
Ganho de poder e influência
Motivação dos outros
Gestão de conflitos
Aptidão de grupos
– Empoderamento e delegação
– Criação de equipas eficazes e de trabalho de grupo
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4. Organização do material:
Contraste
Compreensão
 Mudança da minha
mente
 Facilitar a
compreensão

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Aplicação
 Mudança do meu
comportamento
 Proporcionar
mudança

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4. Organização do material:
Contraste

1.
2.
3.
4.
Requisitos para a
mudança
Aceitar a necessidade
de mudança
Compreender o
que/como mudar
Comprometer-se a
praticar a mudança
Aplicar e monitorar a
mudança
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
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Passos de
desenvolvimento das
aptidões
Avaliação de aptidões
Aprendizagem de
aptidões
Análise de aptidões
Prática de aptidões
Aplicação de aptidões
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5. Objectivos desta edição
Acrescentar suplementos novos
 Actualizar os casos, exemplos e exercícios
 Acrescentar uma perspectiva multicultural
 Melhorar a organização do material
conceptual

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Introdução: O papel crítico das
aptidões de gestão

21th-century business characteristics
– chaotic
– transformational
– rapid-fire change
No sane person is willing to predict what
the world will be like 50, 25, or even 15
years from now.
 “Nanobombs”

– gravação em moléculas
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Introdução: O papel crítico das
aptidões de gestão

Charles Watson
– Computadores

Thomas Edison
– Lâmpada

Irving Fisher
– Mercado de capitais

Neil Armstrong
– Marte

OPEC
– Preço da gasolina

US Patent Office
– Invenções

Warren Bennis
– Fábrica só com dois empregados: o porteiro e o cão!
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Introdução: O papel crítico das
aptidões de gestão
If you are not confused,
you are not paying attention.
Tom Peters
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Introdução: O papel crítico das
aptidões de gestão
We are in one of those historical periods
that occur every 200 or 300 years.
People don’t understand the world anymore.
The past is not sufficient to explain the future.
Peter Drucker
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Introdução: O papel crítico das
aptidões de gestão

Algo, porém, tem permanecido relativamente
constante
– as aptidões
Amor, liberdade, dignidade, confiança e
honestidade
 Excesso de informação

– “information overload”

Permanent “white water” environment
– o ambiente de cachoeira

Avião
– Acidente de John F. Kennedy, Jr.
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Introdução: O papel crítico das
aptidões de gestão

When everything is
changing, change
becomes
unmanageable.

Quando tudo muda, a
mudança torna-se
ingerível.
(W & C, 2002: 2)
(W & C, 2002: 2)

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Apesar de tudo, a
mudança tem de ser
gerida.
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Introdução: O papel crítico das
aptidões de gestão

What is known is not
 Developing
always the same as
management skills is
what is demonstrated.
a ceaseless endeavor.
(W & C, 2002: 2)
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(W & C, 2002: 2)
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Introdução: O papel crítico das
aptidões de gestão
A large number of
management fads
abound
 proclaiming a new
way to be a leader,
get rich, or both.

Our intent, however,
is to rely on a proven
methodology
 that has grounding in
the scientific
literature.


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(W & C, 2002: 3)
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes






Research of 968 firms
Turnover decrease: more than 7%
Increased profits: $3,814 per employee
Sales per employee: $27,044 more
Stock market value per employee: $18,641 more
Firms that had “high”-effective people management
compared to firms that had “low”-effective people
management
(Huselid, 1995;
Pfeffer & Veiga, 1999)
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes
Research of 702 firms
 Shareholder wealth: $41,000 per
employee higher

(Huselid & Becker, 1997)
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes
Companies
that place workers at the core of their strategies
produce higher long-term returns
than their industry peers.
(Blims, Wetzker, & Xhonneux, 1997)
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes
A study of 5-year survivability
 In the late 1980s, 136 nonfinancial firms that
issued initial public offerings (IPOs)
 Effective management people

– the most important factor in predicting longevity

Even when accounting for industry type, size,
and profits
(Welbourn & Andrews, 1996)
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes


Factors that best
accounted for financial
success over a 5-year
span in 40 major
manufacturing firms
What explains the
financial success of the
firms that are highly
effective?
(Hanson, 1986)
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Market share
2. Firm capital intensity
3. Size of the firm in assets
4. Industry average return
on sales
5. Ability of managers to
effectively manage their
people
 5 = 3 × all other factors
combined
1.
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes
US Office of the
Controller of the
Currency (1987)
 During the 1980s,
reasons for the failure
of US national banks
 2 main factors

– poor management
– distressed economic
conditions
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
90% of failed banks
– poor management

35% of the failures
– depressed economic
conditions

7% of the cases
– depressed economic
conditions, the sole
cause
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes
General Motors (GM) automobile assembly
plant in Fremont, CA
 Built in 1950
 In the early 1980s, it was assembling the
Chevrolet Nova model
 By 1982, the performance statistics were
dismal

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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes




Absenteeism: 20%
Number of formal grievances filed by workers: 5,000
Grievances still unresolved at year’s end: over 2,000
Wildcat strikes: a 3-to-4 average per year
– during the previous 5 years



Morale, productivity, quality of production by the 5,000
workers: the worst in GM
Costs of assembling the car: 30% above the Asian rivals
Suddenly, the order came
– close the plant,
– lay off the workers
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes
GM and Toyota Motors signed a joint operating
agreement
 GM then asked Toyota to reopen and manage the
Fremont plant
 Most of the former US auto workers were rehired
 A new management team was put in place
 Workers were exposed to training

– in high-involvement work practices
A former FMC employee became the plant manager
 Between before and after, only 2 differences

– employee training
– new management team
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes







Strikes: None
Absenteeism: 2%
Quality: highest in GM
Productivity: highest in GM
Grievances: only 2 outstanding
Costs: equal to those of the competition
Workers: 2,500
– producing 20% more cars

Product: Geo Prism
– Rated AAA’s best car in its price range
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes
A remarkable turnaround
 In just over a year, simply by changing the
way employees were managed
 It did not take 5 or 10 years, to produce
these major improvements in

– cohesion
– productivity
– commitment
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes
Management skills
are more important than
industry,
competition,
environment,
and economic factors
combined.
(W & C, 2002: 5)
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes
Even as these results pile up,
trends in actual management practice are,
in many instances,
moving in a direction exactly opposite
to what this growing body of evidence prescribes.
(Pfeffer & Veiga, 1999)
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes

Common knowledge
is not necessarily
common practice.

O saber comum não é
necessariamente a
prática comum.

Knowing and doing
are not the same
thing.

O saber e a acção
não são a mesma
coisa.
(W & C, 2000: 5)
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Introdução: A importância de
gestores competentes
Being able to
analyze a case,
identify a problem,
or recite a correct answer to a question
is not equivalent to being able to actually
implement effective management skills.
(W & C, 2000: 5)
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
What differentiates effective managers from less
effective ones?
 What skills ought to be the focus of attention,

– if developing management skills is so crucial for
organizational success?

For enhancing successful performance, the
management literature is filled with lists of
–
–
–
–
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strategies
attributes
behaviors
orientations
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
Key practices
1. Train extensively
2. Share information
3. Hire people
selectively
4. Reduce status
difference
Ensure employment
security
6. Foster
decentralization and
self-managing teams
7. Institute high levels
of pay, based on
performance
5.
(Pfeffer, 1998)
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
Seeds of effective
management and
leadership
1. Transcend fear
2. First look within
3. Disturb the system
4. Embrace hypocritical self
5.
6.
7.
8.
Entice through moral
power
Envision the productive
community
Surrender to the
emergent process
Embody a vision of the
common good
(Quinn, 2000)
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
Attributes
1. Modest
2. Integrity
3. Diplomatic
4. Malevolent
5. Inspirational
6. Self-sacrificial
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Visionary
Autocratic
Autonomous
Self-centered
Administrative
Status conscious
(Brodbeck et al., 2000)
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
Tools associated with
organizational success
1. Strategic planning
2. Strategic alliances
3. Pay for performance
4. Shareholder value
analysis
5. Customer satisfaction
measurement
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Groupware
7. Benchmarking
8. Agile strategies
9. Self-directed teams
10. Cycle-time reduction
11. Mission and vision
statements
6.
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(Rigby, 1998)
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
These kinds of lists are useful,
 but they do not identify management skills
per se.

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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
One study of managers of 3 continents
showed that
 About 74% of successful managers had
emotional intelligence,

– as their most salient characteristic

This was the case in only 24% of failures
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
PepsiCo
 Company units outperformed yearly revenue
targets by 15% to 20%
– when headed by managers with well-developed
people skills

Those headed by managers with
underdeveloped skills underperformed their
targets by about the same amount
(Williamson, 1999)
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
The University of California at Berkeley
produced a 40-year study of their PhDs
candidates
 The emotional quotient was 4 × more
powerful that intelligence quotient

– in predicting who achieved success in their
field, even for hard scientists
(Feist & Barron, 1996)
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
A 1997 McBer study
 comparing “outstanding” managers with
“average” managers
 found that 90% of the difference was
accounted for by the emotional quotient

(Goleman, 1998)
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes


In a consulting firm
“High”-EQ partners compared to “average”-EQ
partners
– 41% of the “high”-EQ group had been promoted after
2 years,
– whereas only 10% of the “low”-EQ had been
promoted

“High”-EQ partners contributed more than 2 ×
as much revenue to the firm as did the “low”-EQ
partners
(Boyatzis, 1982)
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Introdução: As aptidões de
gestores eficazes
Effective managers
have developed high levels of competency
in the management skills,
which are components of emotional
intelligence.
(W & C, 2002: 7)
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Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais



How have you become so
successful in this firm?
Who fails and who succeeds in
this firm and why?
What knowledge and skills
would you make certain that a
person should possess in order
to perform successfully as your
successor,
– if you had to train someone to
take your place?

What an ideal curriculum or
training program would
contain,
– if you could design it to teach
you to be a better manager?

What skills do effective
managers demonstrate which
explain their success,
– if you had to think of those
managers you know?
(W & C, 2002: 7)
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Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais

These 10 characteristics are
– Not a secret
– Not styles or personality attributes
– Not generalizations, such as “luck” or “timing”

They are all behavioral skills common across
– levels
– industries
– job responsibilities

Similar to those resulting from several other
surveys
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Introdução: O que são aptidões de
gestão?

Management skills are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Behavioral
Controllable
Developable
Interrelated and overlapping
Contradictory or paradoxical
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Introdução: O que são aptidões de
gestão?




Participative and human relations skills


Supportive communication
Team building



Assertiveness
Power
Influence skills

Creative problem solving


Managing time
Rational decision making
Competitiveness and control
Innovativeness and individual entrepreneurship
Maintaining order and rationality

7/16/2015
(Cameron & Tschirhart, 1988)
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
61
Introdução: Melhoria das aptidões
de gestão
In the population in general, over the last 50
years
 Average IQ scores have increased
 Average EQ scores have declined
 Today, people are less skilled than they were 50
years ago at

– managing others
– managing themselves
(Goleman, 1998)
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
62
Introdução: Melhoria das aptidões
de gestão
“Technological float” has shrunk
dramatically
 Time between the introduction of a new
technology and its being copied and
revised
 Measured in weeks rather than years

7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
63
Introdução: Melhoria das aptidões
de gestão
In the meantime, “human float” has
changed very little
 It still takes about the same time to
develop behavioral skills and human
competencies, as it always has
 The effort and practice that are required
to become more emotionally intelligent
and interpersonally skilled is substantial

7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
64
Introdução: Melhoria das aptidões
de gestão
Improvement in development
management skills has been found
in both students and managers
 MBA students showed
improvement of 50 to 300% on
emotional skills

– over the course of 2 years, by
enrolling in 2 Developing
Management Skills courses

A greater amount of improvement
occurred among students who
applied these skills to multiple
aspects of their lives



People who were initially more
competent made the most progress
A cohort of 45- to 55-year-old
executives produced the same results
as the MBA students
Executives also improved dramatically
in their management skills,
–
even though most were already
experienced in senior managerial
positions
– outside the classroom
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
(Boyatzis, 1996, 2000, in press;
Wheeler, 1999;
Rhee, 1997;
Boyatzis et al., 1996;
Leonard, 1996;
Boyatzis, Cowen, & Kolb, 1995)
65
Introdução: Melhoria das aptidões
de gestão


Exposure to a traditional
cognitive-based curriculum,
without exposure to
management skills
development, does not
correlate with improvements in
emotional intelligence,
management skills, or career
success
Relationship between
performance in college courses
and subsequent life success
7/16/2015

Life success
– income, eminence,
promotions, job performance,
graduate degrees, and
personal satisfaction



Mean correlation between
performance in school and
performance in life was .18
In no case did the correlation
exceed .20
School performance and
successful performance in
subsequent life activities are
related only marginally
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
66
Introdução: Melhoria das aptidões
de gestão

Attending school
merely to achieve
high grades in
cognitive courses,
while important, is
not sufficient for life,
career, or
management success
7/16/2015

Going into debt for a
formal education or
achieving an
additional set of
letters behind your
name, without also
developing and
improving your
management skills,
will be an unfortunate
lost opportunity
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
67
Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais
Skills of Effective Managers
1.
Verbal communication
(including listening)
2.
Managing time and
stress
3.
Managing individual
decisions
4.
Recognizing, defining,
and solving problems
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Motivating and
influencing others
Delegating
Setting goals and
articulating a vision
Self-awareness
Team building
Managing conflict
(W & C, 2002: 8)
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
68
Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais
1.
2.
3.
4.
Building power and
influence
Communicating with
outsiders
Managing conflict
Decision making
5.
6.
7.
8.
Communicating with
insiders
Developing subordinates
Processing paperwork
Planning and goal
setting
(Luthans, Rosenkrantz, &
Hennessey, 1985)
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
69
Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais
Employment
1. Verbal communication
2. Listening
3. Enthusiasm
4. Written communication
5. Technical competence
6. Appearance
Job success
1. Interpersonal skills
2. Verbal communication
3. Written communication
4. Persistence /
determination
5. Enthusiasm
6. Technical competence
(Curtis, Winson, & Stephes,
1989)
7/16/2015
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70
Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais
To move up
1.
Ability to work well with
others one-on-one
2.
Ability to gather
information and make a
decision
3.
Ability to work well in
groups
4.
Ability to listen and give
counsel
5.
Ability to give effective
feedback
7/16/2015
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Ability to write effective
reports
Knowledge of the job
Ability to present a good
image for the firm
Ability to use computers
Knowledge of
management theory
Knowledge of finance
Knowledge of marketing
(Curtis, Winsor, & Stephens,
1989)
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
71
Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais
Skill
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Customer focus
Ability to use information to
solve problems
Recognizing problems and
implementing solutions
Credibility among peers,
subordinates, colleagues
Ability to transform words
into actions
Listening and asking
questions
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Contributing to firm
mission/objectives
Working in teams
(cooperation/commitment)
Identifying opportunities for
innovation
Setting standards for self and
subordinates
Implementing improvements
Time management
(AMA, 2000)
7/16/2015
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72
Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais
Focus on skills causing derailment
 Inability to build and lead a team
 Failure to meet business objectives
 Problems with interpersonal relationships
 Inability to management self-development
or to adapt
(Van Velsor & Leslie, 1995)
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
73
Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais
Employee skills
1. Creativity
2. Team building
3. Resilience / flexibility
4. Technical competence
Deal with ambiguity
6. Speed
7. Emotional
intelligence
8. Communication skills
5.
(Andersen Consulting
Co., 2000)
7/16/2015
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74
Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais
Leadership attributes
1. Less controlling
2. Shares authority
3. Cultural attuned
4. Encourages
challenge
5. Clear vision
Comfortable with
risk
7. Creates a motivated
business
8. Manages intellectual
diversity
9. Entrepreneurial
6.
Andersen Consulting Co.
7/16/2015
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75
Introdução: Aptidões de gestão
fundamentais
Focus on why managers fail
1.
Ineffective
communication skills
2.
Poor interpersonal skills
3.
Failure to clarify
expectations
4.
Poor delegation and
empowerment
5.
Unable to develop
teamwork
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Lack of trust and
integrity
Unable to motivate
others
Poor planning
Failure to monitor
performance and
feedback
Failure to remove
performance roadblocks
(Andersen Consulting Co.,
2000)
7/16/2015
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76
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões

Management skills are
– Linked to a more complex knowledge base
than other types of skills
– Connected to interaction with other
individuals (frequently unpredictable)

No standardized approach to managing
human beings is possible
7/16/2015
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77
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões


What all skills do have in
common is the potential
for improvement through
practice
Any approach to
developing management
skills must involve a
heavy dose of practical
application
7/16/2015



However, practice without
the necessary conceptual
knowledge is sterile
It ignores the need for
flexibility and adaptation
to different situations
Developing competencies
in management skills is
inherently tied to both
conceptual learning and
behavioral practice
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
78
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões
The method
that has been found
to be most successful
in helping individuals
develop management
skills
is based on
social learning theory
7/16/2015
(Whetten & Cameron,
2002: 12;
Boyatzis, Cowen, &
Kolb, 1995;
Davis & Luthans, 1980;
Bandura, 1977)
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
79
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões

This approach marries rigorous conceptual knowledge
with opportunities to
– practice
– apply observable behaviors

It relies on
– cognitive work
– behavioral work


Variations on this general approach have been used
widely in on-the-job supervisory training programs
They are common in executive education programs and
corporate universities
– less so in business schools
7/16/2015
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80
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões
1.
2.
3.
4.
The presentation of behavioral principles or
action guidelines, generally using traditional
instruction methods
Demonstration of the principles by means of
cases, films, scripts, or incidents
Opportunities to practice the principles through
role plays or exercises
Feedback on performance from peers, experts,
or instructors
7/16/2015
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81
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões

The behavioral principles must be grounded in
– social science theory
– reliable research results

Individuals must be
– aware of their current level of skill competence
– motivated to improve on that level in order to benefit from the
model

An application component is needed in the learning
model
–
–
–
–
7/16/2015
consulting assignment
outside-of-class intervention
problem-centered intervention
self-analysis through journal writing
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82
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões
Components/Contents
1.
Skill assessment
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
Survey instruments
Role plays
1.
2.
Written text
Behavioral guidelines
1.
Cases
1.
2.
3.
Exercises
Simulations
Role plays
1.
Assignments (behavioral and written)
Skill learning
Skill analysis
Skill practice
Skill application
7/16/2015
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83
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões

Research on the
effectiveness of training
programs used this
general learning model

This method produces
results superior to those
based on more traditional
lecture-discussion-case
method approaches
7/16/2015
(Whetten & Cameron, 2002:
13;
Boyatzis, Cowen, & Kolb,
1995;
Vance, 1993;
Kolb, 1984;
Porras & Anderson, 1981;
Lathan & Saari, 1979;
Moses & Ritchie, 1976;
Burnaska, 1976;
Smith, 1976)
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
84
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões
US Postal Service
 49 of the largest 100
post offices in
America were
evaluated
 How can we make
post offices more
effective?

7/16/2015

Productivity and
service quality were
both monitored
– over a period of 5
years

The 2 major factors
– degree of automation
– investment in training
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
85
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões

The US Postal Service provided 2 kinds of
training
– Technical training
 Operating and maintaining the equipment
– Management training
 Developing management skills
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
86
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões

Management training was
more important than
technical training

– in accounting for improved
productivity and service in
the post offices

Both kinds of training
were more important
than having up-to-date
equipment in the post
office
7/16/2015
Low-tech offices
outperformed high-tech
offices
– when managers were
provided with management
skill training

Helping employees to
develop management
skills was the best way to
improve organizational
effectiveness
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
87
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões
Where companies increased their training activity,
the chances were much better
that they were going to increase their operating profits and
that they were going to increase their shareholder value.
Product quality, market share, and productivity
all tend to rise as training budgets go up.
Companies that don’t make the investment
are apt to see disappointing results.
Eric Geenberg,
Director of Surveys for the AMA
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
88
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões

Management schools will begin
the serious training of managers

– when skill training takes its place
next to cognitive learning.

Cognitive learning is detached and
informational,
– like reading a book or listening to
a lecture.


No doubt much important
cognitive material must be
assimilated by the manager-to-be.
But cognitive learning no more
makes a manager than it does a
swimmer.
The latter will drown the first time
he jumps into the water,
– if his coach never takes him out of
the lecture hall, gets him wet, and
gives him feedback on his
performance.

Our management schools need to
– identify the skills managers use,
– select students who show
potential in these skills,
– put the students into situations
where these skills can be
practiced,
– and then give them systematic
feedback on their performance.
(Mintzbberg, 1975: 60)
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
89
Introdução: Uma abordagem ao
desenvolvimento de aptidões

Recent survey revealed that
– 110 CEOs out of Fortune 500 were satisfied
with
Graduates’ competence and analytic skills:
87%
 graduates’ conceptual skills : 68%
 graduates’ management skills: 43%
 graduates’ interpersonal skills and
emotional intelligence: only 28%

7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
90
Introdução: Liderança e gestão

Some writers have
 Some have wondered
differentiated
why we concentrate
between the concepts
on management skills
of leadership and
– instead of leadership
skills
management
(Quinn, 2000;
Tichy, 1999;
Katzenbach, 1995;
Nair, 1994;
Bass, 1990)
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
91
Introdução: Liderança e gestão

Competing values framework
– an organizing framework for leadership and
managerial skills

It was developed by examining the criteria
used to evaluate organizational and
managerial performance
(Quinn & Rohrbaugh, 1983)
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
92
Introdução: Liderança e gestão
Clan skills
 Communicating
supportively
 Building teams and
teamwork
 Empowering
Hierarchy skills
 Managing personal stress
 Managing time
 Maintaining selfawareness
 Analytical problem solving
7/16/2015
Adhocracy skills
 Solving problems
creatively
 Articulating a vision
 Fostering innovation
Market skills
 Motivating others
 Gaining power and
influence
 Managing conflict
(Cameron & Quinn, 2000)
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
93
Introdução: Liderança e gestão


Competing values framework
Leadership
– Clan and adhocracy







Under conditions of change
Doing the right things
Setting the direction, articulating a vision
Transforming individuals and organizations
Creating something new
Dynamism, vibrancy, and charisma
Management
– Market and hierarchy




7/16/2015
Under conditions of stability
Doing things right
Focus on monitoring, directing, and refining current performance
Hierarchy, equilibrium, and control
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
94
Introdução: Liderança e gestão
In previous decades, distinctions between
leadership and management might have been
appropriate
 Nowadays, they are no longer useful
 Managers cannot be successful

– without being good leaders

Leaders cannot be successful
– without being good managers
(Quinn, 2000;
Tichy, 1993, 1999)
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
95
Introdução: Liderança e gestão
Leading change and managing stability
 Establishing vision and accomplishing
objectives
 Breaking rules and monitoring
conformance
 Are all required to be successful

– although being sometimes paradoxical
7/16/2015
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
96
Introdução: Conteúdo do programa

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.
3.
4.

1.
2.
Personal skills
Developing self-awareness
Managing stress
Solving problems creatively
Interpersonal skills
Communicating supportively
Gaining power and influence
Motivating employees
Managing conflict
Group skills
Empowering and delegating
Building effective teams
7/16/2015
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97
Introdução: Organização do
programa


Skill assessment
Instruments designed to identify
–
–
–

your current level of skill competency
your styles
and/or key dimensions of the skill
These instruments can be used to identify
–
–
–
7/16/2015
individual differences
issues surrounding diversity
areas for personal improvement plans
Gestão Corrente, Pereira Alves
98
Introdução: Organização do
programa
Skill learning
 Explanation of behavioral guidelines and
key principles associated with the skill
 Scientific research

– the basis for prescribed skill performance

Clarifying how to develop and perform the
skill successfully
– the purpose of this section
7/16/2015
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99
Introdução: Organização do
programa
Skill analysis
 Cases and examples

– provide examples of successful and unsuccessful skill
performance
Analytic problem solving is facilitated
 Recommendations made for what the key issues
are
 How performance might be modified
 Why success was achieved

7/16/2015
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100
Introdução: Organização do
programa
Skill practice
 Exercises and role plays make it possible
for individuals to practice the skill
 Feedback from peers and the instructor
will facilitate improvement of the skill

– in a setting where failure is not costly
7/16/2015
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101
Introdução: Organização do
programa
Skill application
 Suggested assignments provided

– the skill can be applied in a real-life setting

Feedback mechanism also suggested
– individuals analyze their own success in
applying the skill outside the classroom

Improvement plans should always be
associated with the application exercises
7/16/2015
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102
Introdução: Prática e aplicação

Philosophy of this course
– improvement in management skills is primarily
the learner’s responsability

Little or no progress can be achieved,
– if the application of the principles covered in
this book is not conscientiously applied
outside the classroom

Our intention is to have the course carried
over into the learners’ life activities
7/16/2015
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103
Introdução: Prática e aplicação
1. Psychological research
confirmed that we rely on
a dominant response
pattern,

– when we are forced to
perform under stress


We rely on behavior
patters
– that are most deeply
ingrained in our response
repertoire
7/16/2015
Supportive response
pattern vs. reversion to
the more practiced
combative style
For instance, people
always curse in their
native language
(Weick, 1995;
Saw, Sandelands, & Dutton,
1981)
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104
Introdução: Prática e aplicação

Learners
– do not make the mistake of thinking you can delay
applying skill training, until you become managers

Apply these skills to
–
–
–
–
–
–
7/16/2015
families
friendships
sports clubs
part-time jobs
church groups
student’s organizations
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105
Introdução: Prática e aplicação
2. People learn faster and
remember better

– that which they experience
both intelectually and
emotionally

People learn best the
things
– that affect them personally
They feel affected by
something,
– if they see an immediate
effect on their lives

They can more quickly
acquire a working
knowledge of a foreign
language,
– if they spend a summer
living in its native country
7/16/2015
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106
Introdução: Prática e aplicação
Most research was conducted on age, ethnic,
gender, national, and cultural differences in firms
 Showed 2 kinds of sensitivities

– to the uniqueness displayed by each person
– to the unique but general patterns of behavior that
characterize groups of people
(Cox & Beal, 1997;
Cox, 1994)
7/16/2015
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107
Diversidade e diferenças individuais







Universalism vs. particularism
Individualism vs. communitarianism
Specificity vs. diffuseness
Neutral vs. affective
Achievement vs. ascription oriented
Internal vs. external
Past vs. present; present vs. future
(Trompenaars, 1996, 1998)
7/16/2015
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Personal assessment of
management skills

Developing self awareness (1-5)
– Self disclosure and openness (1-2)
– Awareness of self (3-5)

Managing stress (6-11)
– Eliminating stressors (6-7)
– Developing resiliency (8-9)
– Short-time coping (10-11)
7/16/2015
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Personal assessment of
management skills

Solving problems creatively (12-23)
– Rational problem solving (12-14)
– Creative problem solving (15-19)
– Fostering innovation and creativity (20-23)

Communicating supportively (24-32)
– Coaching and counseling (24-25)
– Effective negative feedback (26-28)
– Communicating supportively (29-32)
7/16/2015
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Personal assessment of
management skills

Gaining power and influence (33-40)
– Gaining power (33-37)
– Exercising influence (38-40)
Motivating others (41-49)
 Managing conflict (50-58)

– Initiating (50-52)
– Responding (53-55)
– Mediating (56-58)
7/16/2015
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Personal assessment of
management skills

Empowering and delegating (59-67)
– Empowering (59-62)
– Delegating (63-67)

Building effective teams and teamwork
(68-77)
– Leading teams (68-71)
– Team membership (72-73)
– Teamwork (74-77)
7/16/2015
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Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento
Know thyself.
Attrib. to Plato, Thales, Socrates, & Pythagoras
Attrib. to Delphic Oracle according to Plutarch
7/16/2015
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Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento
It matters
not what you are thought to be,
but what you are.
Publilius Syrus, 42 BC
7/16/2015
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114
Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento
Self-control,
self-reverence,
self-knowledge,
these three alone lead to sovereign power.
Alfred Lord Tennyson
7/16/2015
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115
Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento
To thine own self be true.
It must follow as the night the day,
thou canst not then be false to any man.
Polonius
7/16/2015
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116
Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento
Emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1998;
Boyatzis, Goleman, & Rhee, 1999)
 Self-awareness

– a crucial aspect of emotional intelligence

It is more powerful in predicting success in
life than intelligence quotient
(Goleman, 1995)
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Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento
Research of 40 firms
 Study of differences between “star” and
“average” managers
 Emotional intelligence competencies, including
self-awareness, were 2 × as important as
cognitive intelligence (IQ) and expertise

– in contributing to excellence
(Goleman, 1998b)
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Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento




Research of a multinational consulting firm
“Superior” performing partners were compared to
“average” performing partners
Superior performers (with higher emotional intelligence
and self-awareness scores) contributed more than 2 ×
the revenues to the firm
They were 4 × more likely to be promoted than those
with low self-awareness and emotional intelligence
(Boyatzis, 1998)
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119
Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento
He
that would govern others
must first master himself.
Messinger
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Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento
Hierarchy of personal life-management skills
1. Self-awareness
2. Setting priorities and goals
3. Managing time
4. Managing stress
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Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento
Biofeedback
 Aromatherapy
 Group methods
 Assorted massages
 Meditation techniques
 Physical exercise regimens
 Altered consciousness procedures

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Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento
$12 billion, in 1990
 New England Journal of Medicine
 $15 billion, in 1995
 Forbes

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Dimensões-chave do
autoconhecimento

We do not summarize those
various approaches to
enhanced self-awareness

– nor do we espouse any one
procedure in particular

Instead, our objective is to
help you understand the
importance of self-awareness,
– if you are to be a successful
manager or a successful
individual
Our objective is to provide you
some powerful self-assessment
instruments
– that are related to managerial
success

Our emphasis is on
scientifically validated
information
– linking self-awareness to the
managers’ behavior

We try to avoid generalizations
– that have not been tested in
research
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O enigma do autoconhecimento
Hatred against oneself
is inseparable
from hatred against others.
Erich Fromm, 1939
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O enigma do autoconhecimento
Self-awareness and self-acceptance
are prerequisites for
personal growth,
psychological health,
and the ability to know and accept others.
Carl Rogers, 1961
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O enigma do autoconhecimento
The function of self-examination is to lay the groundwork for insight,
without which no growth can occur.
Insight is the “Oh, I see now” feeling
that must consciously or unconsciously precede change in behavior.
Insights
—real, genuine glimpses of ourselves as we really are—
are reached only with difficulty
and sometimes with real psychic pain.
But they are the building blocks of growth.
Thus, self-examination is a preparation for insight,
a groundbreaking for the seeds of self-understanding
that gradually bloom into changed behavior.
(Brower, 1964: 156)
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O enigma do autoconhecimento
Individuals
who are more self-aware
are more healthy,
are more productive at work
and perform better
in managerial and leadership roles
(Cervone, 1997;
Spencer & Spencer, 1993;
Boyatzis, 1982)
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O enigma do autoconhecimento

On the other hand, selfknowledge may inhibit
personal improvement

– rather than facilitate it


Individuals often evade
personal growth and new
self-knowledge
They resist acquiring
additional information,
– to protect their self-esteem
or self-respect
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If they acquire new
knowledge about
themselves, there is
always the possibility
– that they feel it as
“negative”
– that it will lead to feelings
of shame, evilness,
weakness, or inferiority

So, they avoid new selfknowledge
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O enigma do autoconhecimento
We tend to be afraid of any knowledge
that would cause us
to despise ourselves
or to make us feel evil, weak, inferior, shameful, worthless.
We protect ourselves and our “ideal” image of ourselves
by repression and similar defenses.
Essentially, these are techniques
by which we avoid
becoming conscious of unpleasantness
or dangerous truths.
(Maslow, 1962: 57)
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O enigma do autoconhecimento
We avoid personal growth, because we
fear finding out that we are “not” all that
we would like to be
 If there is a “ideal” way to be, then
probably our “current” state must be
inferior or inadequate
 The realization that one is not totally
adequate or knowledgeable is difficult for
many people to accept

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O enigma do autoconhecimento
[This resistance is the] denying
of our talents,
of our best side,
of our creativeness,
of our finest impulses,
of our highest potentialities.
In brief,
this is the struggle against our own greatness.
(Maslow, 1962: 58)
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O enigma do autoconhecimento

The effort to be completely honest with
oneself
– Freud (1956) asserted it as the best effort an
individual can make

Complete honesty requires
– a desire for self-improvement
– a continual search for more information about
the self
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O enigma do autoconhecimento


Seeking knowledge of the
self seems to be an
enigma
It is a prerequisite for and
a motivator of growth
and improvement,
– but it may also inhibit
growth and improvement



How can improvement be
accomplished?
How can management
skills be developed,
– if the self-knowledge
necessary for the
development of these skills
is resisted?
It may lead to stagnation,
– because of the fear of
knowing more
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Linha sensível

Sensitive line
– Point at which individuals become defensive
or protective
– Point where they encounter pressure to alter
their behavior
– Point where they encounter information about
themselves that is inconsistent with their selfconcept
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Linha sensível
The more discrepant the information or
the more serious its implications for your
self-concept,
 the closer it would approach your sensitive
line,
 and you would feel a need to defend
yourself against it

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Linha sensível
Threat-rigidity
response
 Individuals tend to
become rigid,

– when they are
threatened
– when they feel
uncertainty is created
– when they encounter
uncomfortable
information
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They hunker down
 They protect
themselves
 They become risk
averse

(Weick, 1993;
Staw, Sandelands, &
Dutton, 1981)
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Threat-rigidity response
They tend to redouble
their efforts to protect
what is familiar and
comfortable
 They rely on firstlearned or most
reinforced behavior
patterns and
emotions

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(Weick & Sutcliffe,
2000;
Cameron, 1994;
Cameron, Kim, &
Whetten, 1987)
138
Threat-rigidity response (1)
In light of this defensiveness
 How can personal change and increased
self-knowledge ever occur?
 Verifiable, predictable, and controllable
information is likely to cross the sensitive
line

– than information without these characteristics
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Threat-rigidity response (1)
If an individual can test the validity of the
discrepant information,
 if the information is not unexpected or
“out of the blue,”
 if there is some control over what, when,
and how much information is received,
 then the feedback is more likely to be
heard and accepted

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Self-disclosure
The role other people can play in helping
insight to occur
 It is almost impossible to increase skill in
self-awareness,
 unless we interact with and disclose
ourselves to others,
 unless we are willing to open up to others

– to discuss aspects of the self that seem
unknown or ambiguous
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Self-disclosure
In order to know oneself,
no amount of introspection or self-examination will suffice.
You can analyze yourself for weeks,
or meditate for months,
and you will not get an inch further
--any more than you can
smell your own breath
or laugh when you tickle yourself.
(Harris, 1981)
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Self-disclosure
You must first be open to the other person
before you catch a glimmering of yourself.
Our self-reflection in a mirror does not tell us
what we are like;
only our reflection in other people.
We are essentially social creatures,
and our personality resides in association,
not in isolation.
(Harris, 1981)
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Self-disclosure
A lack of self-disclosure
not only inhibits self-awareness
but also may adversely affect
other aspects of managerial skill
development
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Self-disclosure


“Low” self-disclosures are
less healthy and more
self-alienated than “high”
self-disclosures
College students give the
highest ratings for
interpersonal competence
to high self-disclosers


Individuals who are high
self-disclosers are liked
best
Excessive or insufficient
self-disclosure results in
less liking and acceptance
by others
(Kelly, 1998;
Goleman, 1998b;
Covey, 1989)
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences

This is the ability to diagnose important
differences among others
– with whom you interact
Individual’s effectiveness as a manager is
closely related to his ability to recognize,
appreciate, and utilize key fundamental
differences among others
 Managing diversity

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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences

The workforce is becoming more diverse, according to a
plethora of statistics demonstrating
– the extent to which
– the specific ways in which

Evidence-based arguments tout the merits of a diverse
group of workers,
– contributing to the performance of a work group (Cox, 1994)

The primary sources of diversity
–
–
–
–
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age
culture
gender
ethnicity
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences

It helps you
– become better equipped to manage yourself
– better understand your own uniqueness as an
individual
– diagnose, value, and utilize the differences
you find in other people
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences

Self-knowledge will help you understand
your own
– sensitive line
– comfort zone
– trigger points
– strengths and weaknesses
– taken-for-granted assumptions
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences

This knowledge is useful for all of us
– because it helps make our interactions with
others more effective and insightful
– because we can or should change
fundamental dimensions of ourselves
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences

It also helps us gain a more complete
understanding of
– our strengths relative to others
– our potential for contributing value in our
future career roles
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
At some time, it is not unusual for many of
us to feel intimidated,
 by heroic or luminary figures,
 whose success is attributed to

– style
– charisma
– intelligence
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
Sometimes, we feel we are somehow
diminished and less capable of what we
see in others
 Self-knowledge allows us

– to recognize our own special gifts and
strengths
– to capitalize on our talents
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
Similarly, diagnosing fundamental differences in
others is an important part of being an effective
manager
 Being aware of, and empathetic toward, the
different

– needs
– perspectives
– inclinations of other people

are a key part of emotional intelligence and
interpersonal maturity
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences

Most people, however, have a tendency to
– exclude others who seem to be different,
– choose similar people to work with them,
– interact with individuals who are like
themselves

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(Berscheid & Walster, 1978)
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
The history of human warfare and conflict
testifies to the fact
 that differences are usually interpreted as
threatening or frightening

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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences

Although fostering similarity makes it
easier to interact with other people,
– especially in a work setting

It also reduces
– creativity
– complex problem solving
– likelihood that working colleagues will
challenge the perspective of the authority
figure
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
Research of organizational failure
has repeatedly demonstrated
that a lack of diversity in the composition of key
decision-making bodies
makes it difficult for them
to recognize changes in their environment and
to respond in appropriately new and novel ways
(Cameron, Kim, & Whetten, 1987)
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
There is one key to helping individuals feel
comfortable discussing ways in which they
are different
 It is by sharing a commitment to focusing
on differences, not distinctions

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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
Differences help us
understand potential
sources of
misunderstanding
between people
 Differences give us
clues


Distinctions create
social barriers
between people
– for the express
purpose of creating or
reinforcing advantages
and disadvantages
– for how we can work
together more
effectively
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences

When someone discounts a coworker’s
opinion on the grounds that the person is
– “is a woman”
– “is from marketing”
– “doesn’t have a college degree”
– “is a member of the old boys’ club”

He or she is creating a distinction
– ineffective for the firm
– potentially hurtful on a personal basis
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences

The creation of such
distinctions destroys
trust among people
7/16/2015

Even if the
distinctions refer to
individuals who are
not present
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
If you were to apply distinctions that
belittled someone in another group,
 that action plants a seed of mistrust in the
minds of people who are present
 regarding what distinctions you may be
privately using to discount them

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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
Recognizing differences
is not the same
as evaluating distinctions.
One is helpful,
the other is hurtful.
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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
Self-awareness and understanding
differences cannot occur without sharing,
self-disclosure and trusting conversations
 Self-knowledge requires an understanding
and valuing of differences, nor the
creation of distinctions

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Understanding and appreciating
individual differences
We encourage you
to use the information you discover
about yourself and others
to build, grow, and value
both of you
in your interactions.
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Important areas of self-awareness
An innumerable quantity of personal
dimensions are available,
 if one is to develop in-depth selfawareness.
 Many aspects of cognitive style have been
measured

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Important areas of self-awareness

Authors have identified more than a dozen
intelligences
– Ranging from social and emotional to
cognitive and creative

The mapping of the human chromosome
has raised the possibility that hundreds of
physiological differences may be crucial in
understanding behavior
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Important areas of self-awareness
Personal values
 Learning style
 Orientation toward change
 Interpersonal orientation

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Important areas of self-awareness
These areas represent a limited set of
factors,
 but they have been found to be important
predictors of various aspects of effective
managerial performance

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Important areas of self-awareness
Creativity
2. Life success
3. Self-improvement
4. Competent decision
making
5. Communication
competency
6. Performing effectively in
teams
7. Life-long learning and
development
1.
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(Sosik & Megerian, 1999;
Allan & Waclawski, 1999;
Goleman, 1998a;
Parker & Kram, 1993;
Atwater & Yammarino,
1992)
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Important areas of self-awareness:
Personal values
The core of the dynamics of behavior,
and play so large a part
in unifying personality.
(Allport, Gordon, & Vernon, 1931:2)
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Important areas of self-awareness:
Personal values
All other attitudes,
behaviors,
and orientations
arise out
of an individuals’ values.
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Important areas of self-awareness:
Personal values
All other attitudes, behaviors, and
orientations arise out of an individual’s
values
 2 major types of values

– instrumental
– terminal

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(Rokeach, 1973)
174
Important areas of self-awareness:
Learning style
The manner in which individuals gather
and process information
 Discussion of the critical dimensions of
learning style
 Empirical research linking learning style to
managerial behavior

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Important areas of self-awareness:
Orientation toward change
The methods people use to cope with change in
their environment
 In the future, all of us will be faced with
tumultuous, rapidly changing, increasingly
fragmented conditions (Peters, 1987)
 Become aware of your orientation toward
adapting to these conditions
 Two important dimensions

– locus of control
– intolerance of ambiguity
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Important areas of self-awareness:
Interpersonal orientation
The tendency to interact in certain ways
with other people
 Assessment instrument for measuring
certain aspects of interpersonal orientation
 Relevance to managerial behavior

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Important areas of self-awareness

Four areas of self-awareness
– personal values
– cognitive style
– orientation toward change
– interpersonal orientation

constitute the very core of self-concept
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Important areas of self-awareness:
Values

Values define an individual’s basic
standards about what is





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true and false
good and bad
moral and immoral
worthwhile and worthless
desirable and undesirable
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Important areas of self-awareness:
Learning style

It determines individual
– methods
– perceptions
– thought processes
for acquiring and storing information
 It determines

– what kind of information is received by an individual
– how that information is judged, interpreted, and
responded to
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Important areas of self-awareness:
Orientation toward change
Orientation toward change identifies the
adaptability of individuals
 It includes the extent to which individuals

– are tolerant of ambiguous conditions
– are inclined to accept personal responsibility
for their actions under changing conditions
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Important areas of self-awareness:
Other aspects of self-awareness
Interests
 Attitudes
 Emotions
 Personality
 Temperament

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Important areas of self-awareness





What we value
 All are strongly
influenced by our
What we are attracted
– values
to
– learning styles
What we want to
– orientations toward
achieve
change
How we feel about
– interpersonal
things
orientations
How we behave
toward others
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Important areas of self-awareness
Strong-Campbell vocational inventory
 Myers-Briggs type indicator
 Sanford-Binet intelligence test

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Important areas of self-awareness
No one,
it should be emphasized,
can get too much self-knowledge.
(Whetten & Cameron, 2002: 61)
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Values
The most stable and enduring traits of
individuals
 The basis for crucial decisions, life
directions, and personal tastes
 The foundation on which attitudes and
personal preferences are formed

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Values

They help define
– Our morality
– Our conceptions of what is good

Much of what we are is a product of
– The basic values
– What we have developed throughout our lives
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Values

The trouble with values is that they are
taken for granted
– people are often unaware of them

The values being held remain largely
undetected,
– unless a person’s values are challenged

People are not aware
– that they hold some values as being more
important than others
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Values

This unawareness leads to
– confusion about values
– actions or behaviors that are sometimes
contrary to values

Unfortunately, people seldom articulate
their values or seek to clarify them,
– until they encounter a contradiction or a
threat to their basic values
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Values
The values held by each of us are affected by a
variety of factors
 A number of ways have been used to measure
and describe values
 Framework for describing the broad, general
value orientations that characterize large groups

–
–
–
–
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industries
nationalities
organizations
ethnic groups
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Values

Research identified
– Ways in which nationalities differ from one
another
– Differences in values that arise across cultural
groups

Managers now face the need to manage
across national boundaries
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Values

In our own life, it is likely that you will
interact increasingly with individuals
– Who do not share your birth country

Knowing something about their value
orientations will help your interactions be
more effective
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Values
Values differ systematically across national
cultures
 These differences are a strong influence in
predicting the values each of us hold for
ourselves
 At least, some of our values are affected
significantly by the

– country
– culture
 in which we are raised
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Cultural values

There are 7 value dimensions
– on which significant differences exist among
national cultures
His data are based on 30,000 managers in
55 countries
 He found that certain cultures emphasize
some values more than others do

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Cultural values
1.
Universalism
1.
Individualism
2.
Affective
3.
Specific
4.
Achievement
5.
Past and present
6.
Internal
7.
Social rules and norms
2.
Individual relationships
Individual contributions
3.
Individual control
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Ascription
Inherent attributes
Past is tightly connected to future
7.
Diffuse
Integrating life’s role
Personal accomplishment
6.
Neutral
Unemotional responses
Segregating life’s roles
5.
Collectivism
Team contributions
Showing emotions
4.
Particularism
Future
Future is disconnected
External
Control comes from outside
forces
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1. Universalism vs. particularism

Universalism

– General societal rules
govern behavior
– People’s behavior is
governed by universal rules

Examples
– The relationship with an
individual governs behavior
– Is the person a friend, a
relative, a family member?

– Do not lie
– Do not cheat
– Do not run a red light
Particularism
Example
– A car hits a pedestrian
 if no one is coming the
other way
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1. Universalism vs. particularism
You are driving a car with a close friend who hits
a pedestrian while going 40 mph in a 25-mph
zone.
 There are no witnesses.
 Your friend’s lawyer says that if you’ll testify that
he was traveling only 25 mph, he’ll get off.
 Will you lie for him?

–
–
–
–
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97%
93%
37%
32%
of
of
of
of
the Swiss
the North Americans
South Koreans
the Venezuelans
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2. Individualism vs. collectivism

Individualism

– An emphasis
Collectivism
– An emphasis
 on the self
 on uniqueness
 on independence
 on the group
 on the combined unit
 on joining with others
– Contributions of individuals
– Western cultures: 80%





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– Team contributions
– Eastern cultures: 45%
Russia
Poland
Hungary
Czech Republic
USA: 72%
 Japan
 India
 Nepal
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2. Individualism vs. collectivism
What kind of job is found most frequently
in your organization,
 one in which everyone works together and
you do not get individual credit,
 or one in which everyone is allowed to
work individually and you receive
individual recognition?

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3. Affective vs. neutral

Cultures with high
affective values

– Show emotions openly
– Deal in emotional ways
with problems

In the course of a
business negotiation
– Anger
– Loud laughter
– Intense passion
Cultures with neutral
values are more
– Stoic
– Rational

In the approach to
– instrumental
– problem solving
– goal-directed behaviors
 Japan
 Ethiopia
 Hong Kong
 Egypt
 Spain
 Kuwait
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3. Affective vs. neutral
If you became very upset at work or in
class
 —say you feel angry, offended, or
slighted—
 how likely would you be to display your
feelings openly in public?

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4. Specific vs. diffuse
Cultures with specific
values separate work
relationships from
family relationships
 People with specific
values may seem
hard to get to know

– Because they keep a
boundary between
their personal lives
and their work lives
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Cultures with diffuse
cultures entangle
work and home
relationships
 People with diffuse
values may seem too
forward and too
superficial

– Because they seem to
share personal
information freely
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4. Specific vs. diffuse

Specific cultures have

– higher turnover rates
among employees
– lower degrees of
loyalty to an employer

Because work and
personal relationships
are less intertwined
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Diffuse cultures have
– lower turnover rates
among employees
– higher degrees of
loyalty to an employer

Because work and
personal relationships
are more intertwined
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4. Specific vs. diffuse
Your boss asks you to come to her home
to help her paint her house.
 You don’t want to do it because you hate
painting.
 Would you refuse?

– 90%
– 82%
– 46%
– 32%
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of
of
of
of
the
the
the
the
Dutch and Swedes
US managers
Nigerians
Chinese
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5. Achievement vs. ascription
People tend to
acquire high status
based on their
personal
accomplishments in
some cultures
 Who you know
(ascription)


–
–
–
–

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People tend to
acquire high status
based on ascribed
characteristics such as
age
gender
family heritage
or ethnic background
What you can do
(achievement)
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5. Achievement vs. ascription
It is important to act the way you are,
 to be consistent with your true self,
 even if you do not accomplish the task at
hand.

– Only 10% from Uruguay disagreed
– 12% from Argentina
– 13% from Spain
– 75% of US managers
– 77% of Norwegians
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6. Past, present vs. future

Some cultures value
past and tradition
more than future

Other cultures place
more value on the
future than the past

Some people are
oriented toward very
short time

Other people think in
terms of months or
years
– a short time horizon
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– a long time horizon
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6. Past, present vs. future
Use the following scale and give a number
to each of the following statements:
 My past started ___ ago, and ended ___
ago.
 My present started ___ ago, and ended
___ ago.
 My future will start ___ from now and will
end ___ from now.

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6. Past, present vs. future

Use this rate scale:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
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7
6
5
4
3
2
1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
years
months
weeks
days
hours
minutes
seconds







3.4, Philippines
3.82, Ireland
3.85, Brazil
4.3, United States
5.47, Pakistan
5.62, Portugal
5.71, Hong Kong
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7. Internal vs. external control


Cultures that presume
that individuals are in
control of their own
destinies
Some countries
emphasize the value of
individuals inventing or
creating things
themselves


Cultures that presume
that nature or external
forces control much of
what happens
Other countries
emphasize the value of
taking what already exists
or has been created
elsewhere
– By refining
– By improving
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7. Internal vs. external control


What happens to me
is my own doing
Norway, Israel,
Uruguay, United
States > 80%
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
Sometimes I feel that
I do not have enough
control
– over the directions my
life is taking

Chinese, Nepalese,
Venezuelans < 40%
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Cultural values

Refer back to some of the differences
– that have been discovered among various cultures

Encourage yourself to begin using these
dimensions
– to raise your awareness of individual differences
around you

Virtually every manager will be faced with the
opportunity
– to interact with and manage individuals born in other
cultures
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Cultural values

Important prerequisites for success in the
21th century
– Be aware of value differences
– Be able to diagnose and manage those
differences
– Do not overgeneralize based on trends
– Do not stereotype people based on their
national culture
– Do not be pigeonholed based on a general
country profile
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Organizational culture
Employees
who hold values that are congruent
with their organization’s values
are more satisfied and productive
(Cameron & Quinn, 1999;
Nwachukwu & Vitell, 1997;
Cable & Judge, 1996;
Posner & Kouzes, 1993)
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Organizational culture
Holding values
that are inconsistent with
company values
is a major source of conflict,
frustration, and
nonproductivity

– your own priorities and
values
– the values of your
organization
– the general priorities of
your country

(Fisher, Macrosson, &
Yusuff, 1996;
Lobel, 1992)
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Being aware of
is important
– if you expect to achieve
compatibility at work in a
long-term career
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Personal values
The total number of values people possess
is relatively small (Rokeach, 1973)
 All the individuals possess the same
values, but in different degrees

– For example, everyone values peace, but
some make it a higher priority than others
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Personal values



1.
There are 2 general types of values
Independent priority ratings have been
found to exist for each type
The two sets of values are largely
unrelated
One is labeled instrumental
– means oriented
2.
The other type is terminal
– ends oriented
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Instrumental values

They prescribe
– desirable standards of conduct
– methods for attaining an end

Two types of instrumental values relate to
– morality
– competence
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Instrumental values

Violating moral values
causes feelings of
guilt

Violating competence
values brings about
feeling of shame

Behaving wrongly

Behaving incapably
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Terminal values
Prescribe desirable ends or goals for the
individual
 There are fewer of them than there are
instrumental values
 So, the sum total for all individuals in all
societies can be identified (Rokeach)
 Terminal values are

– either personal (e.g., peace of mind)
– or social (e.g., world peace)
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Terminal values

An increase in the priority of one personal
value tends to
– increase priority of other personal values
– decrease the priority of social values

An increase in the priority of one social
value tends to
– increase priority of other social values
– decrease the priority of personal values
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Terminal values
Individuals who increase their priority for
a world at peace would also increase their
priority for equality, while decreasing their
priority for pleasure or self-respect.
 People tend to differ in the extent to
which they are self- versus others-oriented
in their values

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Terminal and instrumental values

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Terminal values
Comfortable life
Exciting life
Sense of accomplishment
World at peace
World of beauty
Equality
Family security
Freedom
Happiness
Inner harmony
Mature love
National security
Pleasure
Salvation
Self-respect
Social recognition
True friendship
Wisdom
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
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Instrumental values
Ambitious
Broadminded person
Capable
Cheerful
Clean
Courageous
Forgiving
Helpful
Honest
Imaginative
Independent
Intellectual
Logical
Loving
Obedient
Polite
Responsible
Self-controlled
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Instrumental values

In one study of 567 managers in 12 nations, the
following 2instrumental values were held in the
highest esteem by managers from all 12 nations,
– capable
– courageous
– broadminded

but significant national differences were found
on 75% of the values

(Bigoness & Blakely, 1996)
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Ethical decision making and values
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Front page test
Golden rule test
Congruence test
Cost-benefit test
Personal gain test
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Equal treatment test
7. Procedural justice
test
8. Dignity and liberty
test
9. Good night’s sleep
test
6.
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