Transcript Learning Theories and Integration Models

Learning Theories and
Integration Models
Integrating Educational
Technology into Teaching
Current Educational Goals and
Methods
• Directed instruction: “ is grounded
primarily in behaviorist learning theory
and the information processing branch
of the cognitive learning theories” (IETIE
p55), such as drill and practice, and
tutorials.
• Constructivism: “ evolved from other
branches of thinking in cognitive
learning theory “ (IETIE p55), such as
problem solving, multimedia
applications, telecommunications.
Differences in Terminology
Advocates
of directed
instruction
say:
To Describe
Directed Instruction
Teacherdirected
Systematic
instruction
Systems
approaches
To Describe
Constructivism
Discovery
learning
Unstructured
learning
Self-directed
learning
Differences in Terminology
To Describe
Directed Instruction
Advocates Teacherof Concentered
structivism Knowledge
say:
transfer
Transmission
models
To Describe
Constructivism
Studentcentered
Knowledge
construction
Generative
learning
models
Differences in Philosophical
Foundations
• Constructivists and their opposites
come from separate and very
different “planets” (Molenda,1991;
Philips,1995).
• “Philosophers believe that
knowledge has a separate, real
existence of its own outside the
human mind”(IETIT p.56).
Differences in Philosophical
Foundations( cont.)
• “Advocates of directed instruction
believe that learning happens when
knowledge is transmitted to the learner.
• Constructivist philosophers believe
that humans construct all knowledge in
their minds, so that learning happens
when a learner constructs both
mechanisms for learning and his or her
own unique version of the knowledge,
colored by back and etc”( Willis, 1995).
Instructional Needs Met by Two
Instructional Models
• Needs Addressed by Directed
Instruction
1. Individual pacing and remediation,
when a teacher’s time is limited.
2. Making learning paths more efficient,
especially for instruction in skills that are
prerequisite to higher-level skills.
3. Performing time-consuming and laborintensive tasks, freeing teaching time for
other, more complex student needs.
Instructional Needs Met by Two
Instructional Models (cont.)
4. Supplying the sequence for selfinstruction, especially when human
teachers are not available, teacher
time for structured reviews is limited,
and /or students are already highly
motivated to learn skills.
Instructional Needs Met by Two
Instructional Models (cont.)
• Needs addressed by Constructivism
1. Making skills more relevant to
students’ back ground and
experiences by anchoring learning
tasks in meaningful, authentic, highly
visual situations.
2. Addressing motivation problems
through interactive activities in
which students must play active
rather than passive roles.
Instructional Needs Met by Two
Instructional Models (cont.)
3. Teaching students how to work
together to solve problems through
group-based, cooperative learning
activities.
4. Emphasizing engaging, motivational
activities that require higher-level
skills and prerequisite lower-lever
skills at the same time.
Summary of Characteristics of the
Two Instructional Models
• Directed instructional models tend to:
1. Focus on teaching sequences of skills
that begin with lower-level skills and
build to higher-level skills.
2. Clearly state skill objectives with test
items matched to them.
3. Stress more individualized work than
group work.
4. Emphasize traditional teaching and
assessment methods.
Summary of Characteristics of the
Two Instructional Models(cont.)
• Constructivist leaning models tend to:
1. Focus on learning through posing
problems, exploring possible answers,
and developing products and
presentations.
2. Pursue more global goals that specify
general abilities such as problem
solving and research skills.
3. Stress more group work than
individualized work.
Summary of Characteristics of the
Two Instructional Models(cont.)
4. Emphasize alternative learning and
assessment methods: exploration of
open-ended questions and
scenarios, doing research and
developing products; assessment by
student portfolios, performance
checklists, and tests with openended questions; descriptive
narratives written by teachers.
Learning Theories Associated with
Directed Instruction
• Behavioral theories.
“Behavioral theorists concentrated on
immediately observable changes in
performance as indicators of learning ”
(IETIT p59).
• Information-processing theories.
Focused on the memory and storage
processes that make learning possible.
Skinner’s Behaviorist Theories of
Learning
• Stimulus. An event, combination of
events, or relationship among events
that affect a learner’s perception.
• Reinforcement.
An event that increases the probability
of an act that immediately preceded it.
• Contingencies of reinforcement.
Arranging situations for the learner in
which reinforcement is made contingent
upon a correct response.
Skinner’s Behaviorist Theories of
Learning (cont.)
• Respondents.
Reflex actions elicited by a given
stimulus.
• Operants.
Responses without any obvious
stimulus, which are, therefore, attributed
to internal processes in the brain.
The Contributions of Behavioral
Theories
• “Grandfather of Behaviorism,” B.F.
Skinner generated much of the
experimental data that serves as the
basis for behavioral learning theory.
• Two behavioral principles:
1. Behavior modification techniques
in classroom management.
2. Programmed instruction.
The Contributions of Information
Processing Theories
• Emphasis on sensory input, memory,
and application.
• Didn’t agree with the behaviorists’
view that stimulus-response learning
alone could form the basis for
building higher-level skills.
• More concerned with the internal
processes.
– “cognitive structures”
– “advance organizers”
Three Tasks to Link Learning
Theories
1. Develop & State prerequisite skills
2. Supply instructional conditions
3. Determine the type of learning.
– “ systematic instructional design”
(foundational) or “ systems
approaches” (self-contained tutorials).
Gagne’s Principles
• Events of Instruction.
1. Gaining attention
2. Informing the learner of the
objective
3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite
learning
4. Presenting new material
5. Providing learning guidance
6. Eliciting performance
Gagne’s Principles (cont.)
7. Providing feedback about
correctness
8. Assessing performance
9. Enhancing retention and recall
– Types of learning
1. Intellectual skills
-- Problem solving
--Higher-order rules
--Defined concepts
Gagne’s Principles (cont.)
--Concrete concepts
--Discriminations
2. Cognitive strategies
3. Verbal information
4. Motor skills
5. Attitudes
The Information-Processing
Theorists
•S
WM(ST)
LT
• Sensory Register
• Working (STM)
• Long Term Register
Managing the Complexity of
Teaching
• “ Gagne specialized in the use of
instructional task analysis to identify
required sub-skills and conditions of
learning for them. Briggs’s expertise
was in systematic methods of
designing training programs to save
companies time and money. Together
the two are credited with ISD.
Managing the Complexity of
Teaching (cont.)
• When they combined these two area
of expertise, the result was known as
a systems approach to instructional
design or systematic instructional
design came into use in the 1970 s
and 1980s” (IETIT p63).
Evaluate and Improve Teaching
Plans
•
•
•
•
•
Instructional goals and objectives
Instructional analysis (task analysis)
Tests and measures
Instructional strategies
Evaluating and revising instruction
Directed Methods: Problems
• Students cannot solve problems
• Students find directed instruction
unmotivating and irrelevant.
• Students cannot work cooperatively.
Learning Theories Associated with
Constructivism
• Constructivists strategies attempt to
account for and remedy perceived
deficiencies in behaviorist and
information-processing theories and
the teaching methods based on
them.
• Constructivists try to inspire
students to see the relevance of what
they learn to prevent what the CTGV
(1990) call “ inert knowledge” (IETIT
p65)
The Contributions of Early
Cognitive Learning Theories
• Dewey
Laying the theoretical ground-work
for many characteristics of today’s
educational system. Progressive
Movement in Education
• Lev Vygotsky
“scaffolding” and “ zone of proximal
development” twin concept.
The Contributions of Early
Cognitive Learning Theories(cont.)
• Piaget
Stages of Cognitive Development in
children ranging from sensory motor
to formal operations (IETIT p65).
Experiences a child has helps it
experience, assimilate, and adapt to
its environment.
• Jerome Bruner - intellectual
development with intervention
(active participation)
Lev Vygotsky: Scaffold
• Implications for education Vygotsky’s:
1. Education is intended to develop
children’s personalities.
2. Develop human potential.
3. Help students master their inner
values.
4. Direct and guide the individual
activities of students.
5. Link student learning with individual
development.
Piaget’s Theories
• Ormrod (1995)summarizes Piaget’s
basic assumptions about children’s
cognitive development in the
following way:
1. Children are active and motivated
learners.
2. Their knowledge of the world
becomes more integrated and
organized over time.
Piaget’s Theories (cont.)
3. Children learn through the
processes of assimilation and
accommodation.
4.Cognitive development depends on
interaction with one’s physical and
social environment.
5. The processes of equilibration helps
to develop increasingly complex
levels of thought.
Piaget’s Theories (cont.)
6. Cognitive development can occur
only after certain genetically
controlled neurological changes
occur.
7. Cognitive development occurs in
four qualitatively different stages.
(IETIE p67)
Jerome Bruner’s Theories
•
•
•
•
Enactive stage - initiation of actions
Iconic stage - use of imagery
Symbolic stage - representations
Six indicators or “ benchmarks” that
revealed cognitive growth.
1. Responding to situations differently.
2. Internalizing events into a “ storage
system.”
Jerome Bruner Theories (cont.)
3. Increased capacity for language.
4. Systematic interaction with a tutor.
5. Language as an instrument for
ordering the environment.
6. Increasing capacity to deal with
multiple demands.
• “Discovery Learning” is most
successful with prerequisite
knowledge & structured experiences.
Papert’s “microworlds”
• “Like Piaget, Papert characterized
children as “ builders of their own
intellectual structures”, and he
asserted that these structures
developed in a certain order”(IETIT
p68).
• “Logo offered what he called
“mircroworlds,” or self-contained,
orderly environments that children
could use as “ incubators for
knowledge” (IETIT p69).
John Seely Brown’s Theories
• “Inert knowledge,” a term introduced
in 1929 by Whitehead, is a problem
which was identified by John Seely
Brown.
• “Cognitive apprenticeships” is a
term that refers to a student’s ability
to transfer knowledge in meaningful
ways.
CTGV
• Stands for “The Cognition and
Technology Group at Vanderbilt.”
• Anchored instruction or teaching
that is “ situated in engaging,
problem-rich environments that allow
sustained exploration by students
and teachers” (IETIT p 70).
• “ Generative learning”
Characteristics of Constructivist
Approaches
•
•
•
•
Problem-oriented activities.
Visual formats and mental models.
“Rich” environments.
Cooperative or collaborative(group)
learning.
• Learning through exploration.
• Authentic assessment methods.
Constructivist Methods
• How can one certify skill learning?
• How much prior knowledge is
needed?
• Can students choose the most
effective instruction?
• Which topics suits Constructivist
methods?
Constructivist Methods (cont.)
• Will skills transfer to practical
situations?
• What objective evidence
demonstrates the effects of
Constructivist methods?
Integration Strategies Based on
Directed Models
• Integration to remedy identified
weaknesses.
• Integration to promote fluency or
automaticity of prerequisite skills.
• Integration to make learning efficient
for highly motivated students.
• Integration to optimize scarce
resources.
• Integration to remove logistical
hurdles.
Integration Strategies Based on
Constructivist Models
• Integration to generate motivational
learning.
• Integration to foster creativity.
• Integration to facilitate self-analysis
and metacognition.
• Integration to increase transfer of
knowledge to problem solving.
• Integration to foster group
cooperation.
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