Sudanese Civil War and the Conflict in Darfur
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Transcript Sudanese Civil War and the Conflict in Darfur
Sudanese Civil War and the Conflict
in Darfur
IAFS 1000
Sudan at a Glance
• Was 10th largest state, largest in
Africa
• Red Sea coastline, Sahara
desert, tropical south
• Confluence of Blue Nile and
White Nile
• Capital: Khartoum
Sudanese Population
• Population:
– 41 million
– Concentrated in
Khartoum,
Darfur, South
• Density:
– 42/sq. mile
• Urbanization:
– 43%
The Distant Past
Sudan was once home to
Nubia, a great empire of
black Africans that rivaled
the Egyptians.
Nubia collapsed long ago
and black Africans were
pushed south by Arabs.
Important to Southern
claims to Sudan.
“Land of Islam”
Islam spread to the area of northern Sudan in the seventh
century.
North Sudanese adopted Islam and reorganized politics
around Islam
Proximate to Egypt, close relations with Middle East
“Land of Islam”
Khartoum became an
important trading hub
Slave traders were based in
the north and went south on
raids
Ottomans conquered the area
in 1820s
“Land of War”
Muslim jihadists failed to
spread Islam to the south.
South Sudan called “Land of
War.”
South raided for slaves, but
avoided occupation
Mahdi and Northern Nationalism
The “Mahdi” led a resistance
against the Ottomans in the
late 19th century.
Used Islamic propaganda to
unify Sudan
British Reconquest
Britain helped Egypt defeat the Mahdiyah to return Sudan to
Egyptian rule.
Colonial institutions established in the north.
Rule through local leaders and Christian missionaries in the
south.
The Sudanese Civil War(s)
Independence
•
1954: Britain and Egypt sign accord that states a united Sudan will
become independent in 1956.
•
1955: Anticipating independence, southern military leaders mutiny,
initiate conflict against north.
•
1956: Sudan becomes a sovereign state, and joins Arab League same
month.
Rebel Leadership and
In-Group Policing
Many peace accords failed because the rebels had no
authentic leader. No leader could maintain any peace
agreement.
It was not until 1969 that Joseph Lagu was accepted as the
authentic leader of the south.
The “First Sudanese Civil War”
1955 – 1969: Early Northern leaders pursued peace via
“Sudanization” (Islamization).
1969: Military coup led by Nimeiri, who pursues
socialism rather than Islamization
1972: Nimeiri offers South regional autonomy, allies
with the West and Egypt.
500,000 killed (1955 – 1972).
Inter-War Years (1972 – 1983)
1970s: Nimeiri survives
multiple attempted coups,
enjoys support of southern
leaders.
1978: Chevron discovers oil
in the south.
Return to War
The North responds to discovery of oil by withdrawing
autonomy granted to South and taking control of the oil
fields.
Nimeiri’s most important ally, Egyptian leader Sadat dies
(1981).
The regime weakens, Libya aids a coup that ousts Nimeiri in
1985.
There Will Be Blood
Oil fields (gray boxes)
concentrated in South.
Oil separated from
north by Nuba
Mountains.
Short-Lived “Democracy”
Following the coup, an
election brings al-Mahdi
(grandson of Mahdi) to power.
No votes cast in the south.
1989: al-Bashir takes power in
coup
The SPLA
The SPLA was formed by a group
of military officers led by John
Garang.
Educated in Iowa, personal friend
of Ugandan President Museveni.
Child Soldiers
1990s
The SPLA held the south and
international support for SPLA
grew to include the United
States.
Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda
relocate to Sudan in 1991.
Sudan began exporting oil in
1999.
Comprehensive Peace Agreement
The CPA (2005)
Created democracy with elections
every five years
Grants power-sharing
al-Bashir made President
Garang made Vice President
50/50 revenue-sharing
Causes of concern
Garang dies in helicopter crash two
weeks after he is made VP.
War in Darfur complicates peace
with South.
Leaders have reneged on southern
autonomy in the past.
South would vote to secede or
remain in Sudan in 2010/11.
SPLA allowed to maintain army
until 2011
Islamic law discontinued in South.
The War in Darfur
Darfur is the western region of Sudan.
Dry with arable land
Extremely isolated
LAND OF THE FUR…
People of Darfur
Arab (40%)
Fur (25%)
Masalit (12%)
Zaghawa (9%)
Others (14%)
DIVERSITY AND SALIENCE IN DARFUR
The people of Darfur, both Arab and non-Arab, are
predominantly Muslim.
The most important difference between Arabs and non-Arabs
in Darfur:
Arabs: Predominantly nomadic, use arable land for grazing
Non-Arabs: Predominantly farmers, live permanently on arable land.
HISTORY OF DARFUR
Independent Darfur
Sultanate until Egyptian
invasion in 1870s.
Multi-ethnic feudal state.
Major power in Sahara,
dominated trade
Joined Mahdi movement
against Egypt in 1880s.
ANGLO-EGYPTIAN RULE
After the Mahdi regime was defeated by the British and Egyptians
(1890s), the British decided Darfur was too isolated to be part of
Sudan.
The British decided to include Darfur in Sudan in 1916.
Like South Sudan, Darfur was ruled locally.
DARFUR AND INDEPENDENT SUDAN
Darfur was a strong region for the Mahdi party that favored
isolationism and Islamist rule.
Darfur distrusted Egypt and the Arabs running the country in
Khartoum.
Impartial in South Sudanese civil war. Leaders from Darfur disliked
both sides.
DARFUR AND NIMEIRI
Nimeiri came to power in 1969,
turned away from Islamization
Darfur offered cross border
sanctuary for Islamists in Chad.
Qaddafi supported an Islamist
movement against Nimeiri in
Darfur.
FAMINE AND FAILURE
Famine
Famine, desertification
increase tension between
Arab herders and non-Arab
farmers.
Regime Failure
al-Bashir, an Islamist, comes to
power in 1989.
As government support for
“Janjaweed” form, attack
farmers to claim land for
herders
janjaweed increases, rebel
groups form to defend
farmers.
JEM & SLM
Justice and Equality
Movement
Sudan Liberation
Movement
Created by non-Arab
Created by local Zaghawa
Islamists purged from alBashir’s regime.
and Fur leaders in Darfur.
Divided into three major
Founded by author of
“Black Book,” which used
government statistics to
show relative deprivation.
factions along ethnic lines.
The War Begins (2003)
•JEM/SLA attack
government
• Government responds by
giving janjaweed weapons,
air support.
•300K to 500k killed, most
Darfuri civilians
• 2.7 million refugees; 1/3
of Darfuris displaced
INTERNATIONAL INFLUENCE
China continues to support
the al-Bashir regime with
investment, arms trades,
and support in the UN
Security Council.
Genocide
Bush Administration
al-Bashir charged with war
crimes by ICC in 2009.
Countdown to Independence for South
Sudan – “The world’s newest nation”
July 2009
Both parties agree to allow The Hague to determine border
demarcation.
April 2010
First elections since CPA, Garang’s death
January 2011
The South votes to secede from Sudan
Oil now accounts for 70% of Sudan’s export revenue
Infrastructure remains undeveloped away from Khartoum, Port
Sudan
Independent South Sudan 2011
98.85 of citizens approved
independence by
referendum
Salva Kiir Mayardit, a Dinka,
the first President of South
Sudan.
Civil War………Again 2014
Vice President and
now opposition
Leader, Dr. Riek
Machar, a Nuer
Lenses for Understanding these
Conflicts
The Resource Curse
Used by Political Scientists, Economists, and Geographers
minerals and fuels less economic growth and worse
development outcomes
What the …?
Decline in the competitiveness of other sectors
Volatility associated with market swings
Government mismanagement of resources
Weak/unstable political/economic institutions
Public Goods Distribution
Used by Political Scientists and Economists
“Exporting Colonial Institutions”
Used by Political Scientists, Geographers and Economists
Should I stay or should I go?
Colonizers weren’t fans of malaria…
Exoticism of culture
Colonial Legacy
Extractive institutions
Integrated institutions
Social Psychology Theories
Intergroup Contact Theory
Casual, impersonal contacts encourage hostile stereotyping
Prolonged, personal contacts lessen discrimination
Social Identity Theory
Ingroup – outgroup comparisons
Positive social distinctiveness for ingroup