Transcript Photovoltaic Solar Systems - Fairleigh Dickinson University

Reinventing Energy
in the 21st Century
Dr. William J. Makofske
Professor Emeritus, Ramapo College
FDU University, ISE/CHRMS
November 21, 2008
Why Do We Have to Reinvent
Energy?
Why Renewable Energy?
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Huge amount of energy available
A 5 billion year lifetime
Drastically cleaner than non-renewables
Widely distributed around the planet
Many technologies available and affordable
R&D providing even more options
Decentralized technology-more jobs and
security
• Non-renewable energy is rapidly
depleting, and is destroying the planet.
Renewable Energy Solves the Problems
Created by Non-Renewable Energy
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Balance of trade deficit from oil
Cost of military to provide oil security
Relative security of decentralized energy systems
Escalating price and competition for nonrenewable energy sources
• Pollution health impacts and costs substantially
reduced
• Global warming threatens trillion dollar losses to
the US economy
• Creates efficient infrastructure, manufacturing and
many millions of jobs
What are some renewable energy
options?
• Solar – passive, active, photovoltaic, solar
hot water, concentrating thermal
• Wind – small scale, large scale (wind
farms)
• Hydro – small scale, large scale
• Biomass – wood, waste, crops
• Ocean – OTEC, tidal, wave, current
• Geothermal – power plants, district and GH
heating, heat pumps
Energy Efficiency and Energy
Conservation
• Efficiency refers to technological measures
that improve the efficiency of conversion.
They are typically done once.
• Conservation refers to lifestyle actions that
reduce energy use. They typically must be
repeated.
What are some efficiency and
conservation options?
• EFFICIENCY
• CHP – combined heat and
power (cogeneration)
• Lighting (fluorescent, CF)
• Electric motors
• Appliance efficiency
• Automotive efficiency
• Airplane efficiency
• Building envelope
• LIFESTYLE
• Carpooling
• Temperature reduction
(winter)
• Temperature increases
(summer)
• Trip consolidation
• Shorter showers
• Recycling materials
Interdisciplinary View Critical
Evaluate
Science and Technology
Economics
Environmental Impacts
Social/Political/Global Impacts
We must realize we need to take a systems
approach to our analysis.
So What’s the Problem Today?
• We are not changing our inefficient
infrastructure fast enough!
• We are not integrating renewable energy
options and efficiency to effectively
reinforce each other!
• Most of all, we are not changing our
thinking fast enough!
Cross Section of Solar Cell
Recent Breakthroughs
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Net metering
Mass production
PV Roof/Building integrated technologies
New PV technologies
- multi-junction, concentrators, thin films,
- plastics, nano-technology
• Higher efficiencies
• Incentive programs
• New inverter technology
Net Metering can be done with or
without a battery backup
PV Price and Quantity
Manufactured Relationship
Solar Roofing Shingles
Roof Integrated Photovoltaics in
Misawi, Japan
Roof Integrated PV in Japan
PV Installation in Planned
Community in Germany
Solar Carport
Navy Installation – San Diego, California
BP Installation on their Gas
Station
FALA Factory Roof Installation
Farmingdale, LI, NY
Note the number of other roofs
Solar Cells Installed in Building
Facade
PV Potential
• Existing roofs could provide all the energy
that we currently use in the US.
Decentralized use eliminates vast
expenditures for transmission lines and
provides security.
• Less than 100 square miles could provide
all the electricity use in the US
Windpower
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Fastest growing energy source in the world
Wind farm prices compete with fossil fuels
Small or large scale applications
Grid or not grid connected
Few environmental impacts
Site specific resource but plentiful
Few aesthetic, noise, bird/bat concerns
Bergey Windpower
Norman, OK
1
kW
BWC
Excel
10 kW
On-Grid Home with Wind
System
• Charlotte, VT, net metering for utility bill
reduction
• Bergey Excel wind turbine, 23 ft rotor,
10 kW
• GridTek inverter
240 VAC
single-phase
• 1.4 kW PV array
• Installed in 1999
US Wind Resource Map
Wind Farm in Vermont
Wind Farm in California
Wind Farm - Hawaii
Hydropower
• In the U.S, hydropower provides 8-10% of
the total electricity, but 81% of the
renewable electricity generated.
• The U.S. has 75,400 MW of installed hydro
capacity, (half of its total hydro potential),
and about 21,000 MW of pumped hydro
storage for peaking.
Hydro Facility at St. Anthony’s,
Mississippi
Water Turbine Technology
Hydro Potential
• Small-scale hydro (< 30 MW) may be able
to contribute considerable energy to the grid
since many existing dams may be retrofitted
to produce electricity. There would be little
additional environmental impact.
• Only 860 out of 6,356 large dams, and only
2744 out of 75,200 dams in the US, produce
electricity.
Hydro Pumped Storage
Offers possibilities to store renewably-generated
electricity from intermittent sources like solar
and wind. Why not use any existing dam for
renewable energy storage?
Tidal and Ocean Power
Current Power
Tidal Turbines in NY
Wave Power
Geothermal Energy
THREE MAJOR
TYPES
• Power from large
facilities that produce
electricity. (Red)
• Large-scale
geothermal heating
from areas that have
warmer water close to
the surface.(Orange)
• Geothermal heating
and cooling for
buildings.(White)
Geothermal Power Plant
Geo-Thermally Heated Greenhouse
Geothermal District Heating
Geothermal Heat Pump
Geothermal Heat Pump
Configurations
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Geothermal Heat Pumps Are Not a
Panacea
Most cost effective if used for heating and cooling
Installed household cost may be $30,000 or more.
Most easily done with new construction.
Electricity still needed to run the pumps. A COP
of 3 and a power plant efficiency of 30% provides
little savings of fossil fuels. Emissions now come
from coal electricity plants. Electrical cost to run
pumps may be high.
• Not all sites are easily fitted with ground or wellbased heat transfer coils
Biomass
• Currently supplies 3% of all energy in US, but 47%
of all renewable energy(wood, hydro major source)
• Globally, biomass provides 14% of all energy
consumption.
• Biomass consists of wastes (agricultural and
forestry waste, waste vegetable oils, and municipal
solid wastes) and field and forestry crops (such as
trees, grasses, corn, wheat, soybeans)
• Claims made for producing potentially 30% of total
energy in the US.
Examples of Worldwide Use of
Biomass
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Ethanol from sugar in Brazil
Wood for cooking in many LDC’s
Dung for cooking in India
Manures used for biogas production
Forestry wastes in Sweden
Biodiesel in Europe
Charcoal production from forests
Some Biomass Examples in US
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Corn to ethanol
Soybeans to biodiesel
Trees to wood pellets or direct combustion
Manure to methane or biogas
Vegetable oil waste to biodiesel
Municipal solid waste to methane
Municipal solid waste to electricity
Biomass Gasification Plant
Biomass Limitations
• 20% of US area is cropland; 30% woodland
• Collection of diffuse sources of biomass
• Fossil fuel inputs into production of
biomass
• Competition with other uses of biomass
• Environmental consequences – overuse of
soils, pesticide contamination, fertilizer
runoff, water use, biodiversity loss
Biomass Policy
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Local wastes to be used for local consumption
Minimize fossil fuel inputs
Maximize net energy
Minimize air pollution
Minimize greenhouse gases
Provide economic benefit
Minimize systemic impacts – food, exports and
health
Where Do We Start?
• Efficiency is almost always cheaper than supply
• Reduce demand through lifestyle changes with
energy conservation
• New renewable supply? Which ones and how
much, how quickly?
• Little time to turn around GHG emissions
• Systemic impacts are very important.
• Motivation – Will we recognize the urgency of
the problem in time? Will we act in time?
History – Previous Failures
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Government programs for new energy
technologies don’t have a very good record!
Nuclear power(1950’s) – too cheap to meter
Fusion power (1940’s) – still 50 years away
Synthetic fuels (1970’s) – provide cheap oil
Alternately Fueled Vehicles (1980’s) - how
many?
The Diesel Hybrid (1990’s) – where is it?
Are we about to add ethanol, new nuclear
power and hydrogen to the list?
Ethanol
• Produced from corn
• 1.4 billion gallons (1998) to 8 billion
gallons (projected 2008). Bush goal to 35
billion gallons by 2017 (10 fold over current
production)
• By 2017, it could replace 13-15% of
gasoline but will require 30% of all
cropland.
Corn for Transportation
Achieve Petroleum Independence?
• If we were to go beyond the 2017 goal to
produce 50 billion gallons of ethanol per
year, we would need half of all farmland,
and would displace about 1.6 mbd (million
barrels per day of oil). We would reduce our
our dependence by 1.6/21 or 7.6%. Our
projected increase in consumption by then
would exceed this.
Good for the Economy and
Consumers?
• Ethanol is so heavily subsidized that it will
wind up costing well over $10 per gallon.
• $5 billion
subsidy to grow corn
• $11.8 billion subsidy to produce ethanol
• $3 billion
local, state, tariff subidies
• $14 billion
food cost increase
• $2.5 billion
blending tax credit
So What is the Cost of Ethanol?
• Over a year, we will expend at least 36.5
billion dollars to produce about 5 billion
gallons of ethanol.
• $36.5 billion/5 billion gallons = $7.30 per
gallon. Plus you will still spend $2.50 or $3
per gallon to buy it.
• The ethanol is a great boon to corn farmers,
to the ethanol manufacturers, and to the car
manufacturers.
Good for the Environment?
• Ethanol use will lead to an increase of
perhaps 7% in NOx and VOC’s (air
pollution – ground level ozone and increase
in GHG’s)
• Net energy is small because of the large
fossil fuel inputs into agriculture and
ethanol production
• Environmental impacts will be large
What Is the Hydrogen Economy?
• An oxymoron?
• Hydrogen is not an energy source
• Hydrogen is locked up chemically in water,
biomass, natural gas and petroleum. It takes
as much energy to release the hydrogen as
you could possibly get back (First Law of
Thermodynamics). Because of energy
losses, you will not get back as much
energy as you put in.
What Is an Energy Carrier?
• A form of energy that is an intermediary in an
energy transformation
• Electricity is the most used energy carrier today.
Gasoline, methanol, ethanol are carriers too.
Hydrogen is a energy carrier.
• Desirable characteristics - easily transported, can
be made from many sources of energy, easily
transformed to useful end use forms of energy,
easily stored
Hydrogen Economy
• A society where hydrogen is used
extensively, being produced from energy
sources, stored, distributed and then
converted to other useful forms of energy
(like electricity, mechanical kinetic energy,
and thermal energy). In a hydrogen
economy, hydrogen is an important
intermediate form of energy in the energy
conversion system.
The Hydrogen Energy System
• The hydrogen “system” must consist of at
least 4 parts. It is a major infrastructure
change.
• Source of Hydrogen
• Storage of Hydrogen
• Distribution of Hydrogen
• Conversion of Hydrogen
The Source of Hydrogen?
• Initially, demand for H will be small so
large centralized systems could not be built.
But we could have
• merchant H gas (from reforming)
• Decentralized reforming of natural gas
• Decentralized electrolysis of water
• Ultimately, more centralized systems might
be cheaper once demand is high
Possible Storage Technologies
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Compressed H gas cylinders
Liquefaction of H
Metal hydrides
While these methods have been used with
test vehicles, many doubt that these will be
suitable for consumers.
• Carbon container storage?? A possibility
Transporting Hydrogen
Indirectly:
Transport natural gas and reform to H
Use electricity and electrolyze H
Directly:
Truck H in pressurized containers or as a
cryogenic fluid
Transport by hydrogen pipeline (best with
centralized production schemes)
Fuel Cell Properties
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electrochemical
compact (1MW=14 m3)
high electrical efficiency
no pollution
converts H to water, heat
and electricity
• DC voltage production
• scalable to any size
Fuel Cell Module
• Ballard Fuel Cell
2006 Fuel Cell Vehicles
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City 62 mi/kg
Hwy 51 mi/kg
Range 190 miles
80 KW DC Motor
PEM Fuel Cell
Ultra Capacitor 9.2
farad energy storage
• Lease Only - 50 states
Fuel Cell Bus
Barriers to Hydrogen Economy
• Technical - development of technology at a scale
consistent with the scale of the energy system
(small-scale decentralized, large- scale centralized,
or some combination)
• Economic - mass production costs, existing and
historical energy subsidies
• Social/Political - obstacles to change and new
infrastructure, vested interests
• Alternatives – EV, hybrid EV
Nuclear Power – The Solution?
Nuclear Power - Fission
• 103 nuclear plants currently produce about 18% of
U.S. electricity
• No new nuclear plants have been ordered in the
U.S. for the last 30 years
• Because nuclear plants do not directly put out
CO2, nuclear expansion is sometimes claimed to
be a clean, emissions-free climate solution
• Substantial Federal subsidies are now being
offered to build new nuclear plants
Long-Standing Obstacles to Nuclear
Power Expansion
• Cost – the most expensive way to generate
electricity
• Radioactive waste – disposal issues unresolved
• Accident potential – reactor accidents could
release significant radioactivity
• Nuclear Proliferation – nuclear power and nuclear
weapons development interconnected
• Economic risk – inability to finance reactors
• Uranium fuel cycle – numerous impacts from
mining, pollution
• Uranium resource – limited supplies unless
breeder reactors are used generating plutonium
Nuclear Power Growth
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Corrected U Fuel Cycle
Fuel Assembly Plants
Uranium Enrichment Facility
Depleted Uranium Waste
Centrifuge Enrichment Plant
Reprocessing Facility- Sellafeld, UK
Spent Fuel Storage Pond
Low Level Radioactive Waste
High Level Radioactive Waste
Is Nuclear Power a Solution to
the Global Warming Issue?
• Expensive - Money invested in nuclear could
provide much greater CO2 reductions invested
elsewhere
• Bypasses the free market system so need massive
public investment
• Highly risky since any of the long standing
problems could derail its development
• Nuclear power is not clean or climate-friendly if
you look at the entire uranium fuel cycle
2.4 KW System under
Installation in New Hampshire
Pole Mounted PV
59 KW Installation of 5600 ft2
in Greenpoint, Brooklyn
The Greenpoint, NY Building
Micro-Siting Example:
Obstruction of the Wind by a Building or a
Tree
Prevailing wind
H
2H
Region
of highly
disturbed
flow
2H
20H
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