Transcript Strategic Options Development and Analysis

Strategic Options
Development and
Analysis
The Principles
Dr. Ion Georgiou FGV-EAESP-IMQ
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Why maps?
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SODA works by constructing and analyzing cognitive maps
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The usefulness of cognitive mapping has gained currency during the last twenty years
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Bryant J (1984) Modelling alternative realities in conflict and negotiation. Journal of the Operational Research
Society 35(11): 985-993
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Langfield-Smith K (1992) Exploring the need for a shared cognitive map. Journal of Management Studies
29(3): 349-368
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Fiol CM (1992) Maps for managers: Where are we? Where do we go from here? Journal of Management
Studies 29(3): 267-285
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Kitchin RM (1994) Cognitive maps: what are they and why study them? Journal of Environmental Psychology
14(1): 1-19
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Nicolini D (1999) Comparing methods for mapping organizational cognition. Organization Studies 20(5): 833860
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Daniels K, Johnson G (2002) On trees and triviality traps: locating the debate on the contribution of cognitive
mapping to organizational research. Organization Science 23(1): 73-81
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Tegarden DP, Sheetz SD (2003) Group cognitive mapping: a methodology and system for capturing and
evaluating managerial and organizational cognition. OMEGA The International Journal of Management
Science 31(2): 113-125
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Kane M, Trochim WMK (2007) Concept Mapping for Planning and Evaluation. Sage: Thousand Oaks
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the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Florida University System, Cmap tools program that
‘empowers users to construct, navigate, share and criticize knowledge models represented as concept maps’
(see http://www.ihmc.us/)
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A string of mind mapping gurus have emerged, the most famous being Tony Buzan, the self-proclaimed
‘inventor of mind mapping’ (Buzan, 2002; see also http://www.imindmap.com)
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… no matter whether one calls them concept maps, cognitive maps, or mind maps, particular structures have
spawned spidergrams, bubble diagrams, logic diagrams, and tree diagrams (to name but a few)
Dr. Ion Georgiou FGV-EAESP-IMQ
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The mapping approach offered by
Operational Research
 Operational research offers its own version of
cognitive mapping: Strategic Options
Development and Analysis, or SODA.
 What differentiates SODA from other
cognitive mapping approaches is its basis in
George Kelly’s psychological theory of
personal constructs.
 Although SODA does not pretend to
appropriate Kelly’s theory en masse, it does
borrow two key ideas: one theoretical, and
one procedural
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George Kelly’s theory
 Highly developed
 Books
 Kelly GA (1955/1991) The Psychology of Personal
Constructs. 2nd edn. Routledge: London
 Kelly GA (1963) A Theory of Personality: The
Psychology of Personal Constructs. Norton: London.
 Kelly GA (1970) A brief introduction to personal
construct theory. In Bannister D (ed.), Perspectives in
Personal Construct Theory. Academic Press: London
pp. 1-30
 Journals
 International Journal of Personal Construct
Psychology among others...
 Kelly’s central theme is the manner in which human
beings understand the world through mental constructs
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George Kelly’s theory
 Interested in uncovering the meaning behind what we say, and
thus minimize ambiguity
 He noted that problems tend to be analyzed or interpreted
according to the type of analyst one consults:
 a Freudian/Jungian analyst will structure and analyze
according to Freudian/Jungian principles;
 A Behaviorist would most probably analyze the situation and
draw conclusions in terms of conditioning
 This implies that the frame of reference of the analyst delimits
what is perceived, how it is described, and what the ultimate
prescription might be
 Kelly’s objective was to devise a theory, coupled with an
analytical technique, which would remove (as far as possible)
the analyst’s frame of reference (i.e. bias), and so undertake
problem description and resolution from the client’s point of view
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The new role of the analyst
 Where once the analyst was seen as some
type of specialist in the contents of the mind,
s/he would now be appreciated more as a
process facilitator specializing in structuring
the client’s thoughts as the client sees them
 This view of analysis, and of the role of the
analyst, underpins SODA
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what the client needs is help in structuring
complex perceptions so that the client
him/herself can then resolve the problem
using this structure
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Kelly’s basic procedure
 Reality, and what we make of it, is constituted by contrasts, rather than
absolutes
 Any individual understands a phenomenon in terms of constructs
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A construct is constituted by a contrast
 A person is pleasant
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Not pleasant is not a contrast – it is the negative
What is the particular contrast which is being implicitly conveyed?
Pleasant… rude (here, pleasant includes politeness)
Pleasant… exciting (here, pleasant includes placidity: merely pleasant, maybe
even a bit boring)
 In this way, constructs open up the world of human understanding
 Any model structured according to constructs differentiates at least two views
of the world
 This is useful because in one model we can identify a strategy which leads
somewhere as opposed to following another (opposite) strategy which leads
somewhere else
 we can thus compare and contrast strategies
 SODA does exactly this
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Understanding Kelly’s basic approach
through a contemporary example
Invade Iraq... not
available contrasts
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negative
Remain indifferent to dictators
Allow democracy to flourish in its own time
Do not support the armaments industry
Question the electoral advantage of wars
Unite the allies in war against terrorism
Pursue alternative sources of energy
Pursue diplomatic channels
Focus on Afghanistan
Invade North Korea (or Palestinian Territories, or
Iran)
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SODA Maps
 They represent subjective data meaningfully and transparently
through a process of cause and effect
 They facilitate decision making, problem solving, and
negotiation in organizational contexts
 They act as documents of clear argumentation
 Visual aid for
 comprehending the perceptions of problem owners
 discovering otherwise hidden aspects of the problem
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Alternative strategies (stemming from thinking in opposites)
Feedback loops (stemming from the network structure of
cognitive maps)
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SODA: Interdisciplinary range
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We want a tool that:
 Models thoughts
 Models choices
 Incorporates
multiple variabletypes
 Enables creativity
and analysis
 Can deal with
individuals and
teams
 Helps attain a
degree of
disciplinary
objectivity
[Di]Graph
Theory [Social]
Graph
Network
drawing
Theory
Matrix
Theory
Cartography
Epistemology
SODA
maps
Psychology
Blockmodeling
Graph
Mining
Topology
Repertory
Grids System
Theory
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SODA Map
 A model of the system of constructs used to
communicate the problem
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The model has a particular structure
Depending on its position in the structure, a
construct may be an option/means/constraint
or an outcome/end/objective.
 The meaning of a construct is enhanced
through its relationship to other constructs
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Strategic options, sometimes
called strategic directions, are
options which have no other
options above them in the map, but
which are below the outcomes.
Model structure
End
Outcome
Outcomes (Head)
Means
Alternative
structures are
available
Goals/aspirations
Option
Facilitative goals
Strategies
Strategic options
Strategic issues
Strategic options
Operational
options/constraints
(Tail)
Note, although the
bottom-up structure is
recommended, it is not
a rule.
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Linking constructs
 A SODA map is composed of interlinked
constructs
 The links are arrows
 Arrows are positive or negative
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Positive arrows have no symbol
Negative arrows have a –ve symbol
+ve link
-
-ve link
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Understanding SODA thru SODA
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Merged maps
 Individual maps structure the understanding of each
individual involved in the situation
 A holistic appreciation of the group’s understanding
requires a merged map
 Groups maps may be created by merging individual
maps
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similar constructs are merged into one
constructs from key members of the group should be retained
a balance of constructs from all members of the group should
be present
the facilitator may suggest the addition/deletion of constructs
and links
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Merging
maps
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Clusters
 Maps consist of interacting constructs
 Therefore a map is system of constructs
 It is possible to identify groups of constructs within
the map – sub-systems of constructs known as
clusters
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A cluster of constructs is one that refers to a particular
issue
 Aside from a map being a system of constructs,
therefore, a map is also a system of interrelated
clusters, each of which addresses a particular issue
 Identification of clusters allows one to highlight the
main issues of a situation, and the interrelations
between them
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Unclustered map
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Clustered map
unclustered
constructs
negotiative power
complexity
grid for projects
Rep Grid Theory
richness constrain
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Color-coding clusters
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Things to note about clusters
 They usually have a
head or two
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Cluster with
numerous heads
usually indicate that
a more attentive
analysis is required
 A head may be
considered as
symbolizing an issue
that acts upon the
problem situation
 They usually have a
number of tails that
lead into a head
 A head of one cluster
can act as one of the
tails of another cluster
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References
 RAPW Chapter 2
 Eden (1988) Cognitive mapping. European Journal of
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Operational Research 36(1): 1-13
Eden C, Jones S (1984) Using repertory grids for problem
construction. Journal of the Operational Research Society 35(9):
779-790
Brown S (1992) Cognitive mapping and repertory grids for
qualitative survey research: some comparative observations.
Journal of Management Studies 29(3): 287-307
Ackermann A, Eden C, Brown I (2005) The Practice of Making
Strategy: A Step-By-Step Guide. Sage: London
Bryson JM, Ackermann F, Eden C, Finn CB (2004) Visible
Thinking: Unlocking Causal Mapping for Practical Business
Results. Wiley: Chichester
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