Transcript Chapter One - Keith Wilmot

Chapter One
Introduction to Criminal Justice
Research Methods
Frank Hagan
Scientific Research in
Criminal Justice and Criminology
Scientific Research
versus
Common Sense
Questions
Is social research a science?
In your opinion, is criminal justice and/or
criminology a social science?
If so, explain?
SCIENCE

Science refers to a system which combines rational
explanation (theory) with the scientific method. Together,
this combination leads to the development of knowledge.

Knowledge is the creation of abstract symbols or ideas
(concepts) which seek to explain reality, i.e., language,
theories, and policies. Knowledge changes over time.

The scientific method transforms plausible ideas of
reality (theories) into hypotheses. The scientific method
employs observation, measurement, replication, and
verification (validity).
Questions
What is the probabilistic nature of science?
and,
How does it relate to predictions?
Proper Conduct of Critical Inquiry

Objectivity: neutrality

Vigilance: accuracy/error proneness

Empathy: when critiquing others

Interdisciplinary efforts

Methodological Narcissism: substance/method
Theory / Hypothesis

Theory – General statements regarding the
relationship between two or more variables. An
attempt to classify, explain, predict, and to
understand the ‘why and how’ of real events that deal
with crime and criminal justice issues. In contrast,
methodology attempts to explain ‘what is.’

Hypothesis – Specific statements regarding the
relationship of two or more variables which are
derived from general theories.
Paradigm
A model that incorporates theoretical and
methodological ideas that give structure and
perspective to a particular view of reality. This
framework provides a means of analysis.
Paradigms tend to shift over time.
What is an example of a paradigm shift?
Explain.
Methodology
A method which involves the collection of accurate
facts and data regarding the nature of crime and
crime policy.
In contrast to theory, methodology attempts to explain
the issue of “what is.”
For example, what is the extent of crime?
Pure versus Applied Research
Pure research is the acquisition of knowledge
for science’s sake.
versus
Applied research is research
concerned with solving or addressing
immediate policy problems.
What is an example of applied research?
Qualitative versus Quantitative
Qualitative or “ethnographic” research tends to
sensitize concepts as a basis for fundamental
understanding (verstehen). Examples include
participant observation, field studies, and interviews.
Quantitative or “empirical” research is designed to
operationalize and numerically measure variables for
statistical analysis.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Theory -> Deduction

Hypothesis -> Operationalization

Research Design -> Measurement

Data Gathering -> Analysis

Findings -> Induction

Induction -> Theory
Research Process Terms

Deduction – theory to fact

Induction – fact to theory

Concepts – abstract tags put on reality (or constructs
that capture the essence of reality, i.e., crime, recidivism,
intelligence, police patrol, risk on parole, age, sex, race,
etc.)

Operationalization - How concepts will be measured –
quantifying a concept to a measurable cause/effect
(variable) relationship. A “working” definition.
VARIABLES
Variables are human behavior characteristics that
vary from individuals or groups of individuals.
They take on different numerical values –
operationalized concepts.
Examples of variables include: age, gender, race,
crime, police patrol, and recidivism.
From variable categories we can attempt to predict
causation and relationships.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE

A variable caused by another –
the presumed effect.

Outcome


“Y”
Examples: Crime, recidivism, sentence length,
poverty
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

A variable that influences another variable –
the presumed cause.

Predictor – precedes in time the dependent
variable.


“X”
Examples: age, race, gender, poverty,
type of crime, etc.
Causation and Relationship

Causation: the concept that the action of one phenomenon
affects the behavior of another, i.e., causal effect*: the finding
that the change in one variable leads to the change in another
variable.

Direction of association: positive (when the independent
variable moves in the same direction as the dependent
variable); negative (when the independent and dependent
variables move in opposite directions); or, no direction (if the
independent variable is categorical).

Example of a causal effect: Individuals exposed to media violence are more
likely to engage in violent behavior than similar individuals who have not been
exposed to media violence.
Example Hypotheses
Practical Exercise
Determine the independent and dependent variables
and the direction of association.

The greater the social disorganization in a
community, the higher the rate of crime.

As one’s self-control gets stronger, the fewer
delinquent acts one commits.

Crime is lower in those communities where the
police patrol on foot.
Forms of Research

The Experiment : Control group and experimental group –
based on a random sample.

The Survey: Effects are reported after the fact and focus on
attitudes and opinions, i.e., verbal reports, questionnaires,
personal interviews, and telephone interviews. Example:
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS).

Content Analysis: Objectively seeks to describe the content of
previous messages, i.e., reenactments via vignettes.

Qualitative analysis: participant observation, i.e., field studies
which include field observation or interviews.

Empirical or Quantitative Analysis: Chi-Square, Regression,
Correlations, Longitudinal Studies (NIJs Project of Human
Development in Chicago Neighborhoods), etc.
General Steps in Empirical
Research in Criminal Justice

Problem Formulation: theory/hypothesis consideration,
feasibility of doing research, literature review, timeliness
of policy implications, availability of funding and
sponsorships.

Research design – type of approach, i.e., experimental or
non-experimental.

Data Collection: choice of methods, i.e., observation,
questionnaires, interviews, reanalysis of existing data.

Analysis and presentation of findings

Conclusions, interpretations, and limitations
Practical Exercise
Study: A society's suicide rate will increase with
the level of alienation felt by its members.

Q. What is the independent variable in this study?

Q. What is the dependent variable in this study?

Q. What is the direction of the relationship?
("+" for positive,"-" for negative, "0" for not applicable or no
direction)