Principles of Anesthesia
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Transcript Principles of Anesthesia
Principles of Anesthetics
Bucky Boaz, ARNP-C
Background
Carl Koller
1884
Freud colleague
Eye surgery
Background
William Halsted
1885
Local injection of
cocaine for surgery
Nerve block
Background
1884
Hall – Dentistry
1884
Zenfel – Ear
1890
Ritsert –
Benzocaine
1905
Einhorn and Braun –
Procaine
1930
Chlorprocaine
1941
Nils Lofgren
Synthesized Xylocaine
Changed to lidocaine
Physiochemical Properties
Aromatic
Segment
Intermediate
Chain
Hydrophilic
Segment
Amino-ester
Amino-amine
“Esters”
“Amines”
Physiochemical Properties
Amino-esters (“Esters”)
Older class of drugs
Derivatives of PABA (p-aminobenzoic acid)
Hydrolyzed by serum cholinesterase
Examples
Procaine (Novocaine)
Cocaine
Tetracaine
Benzocaine
Physiochemical Properties
Amino-amines (“Amines”)
Newer class of drugs
Derivatives of aniline
Hepatic degradation
Examples
Lidocaine
Bupivocaine (Marcaine, Sensoricaine, Polocaine)
Mepivocaine (Carbocaine)
Etidocaine
Prilocaine
Physiologic Basis
Prevention of sodium influx across the nerve
membrane
Sufficient anesthetic present prevents firing
threshold from being obtained
Prevents action potential from forming
No action potential, no impulse, therefore
conduction blockade
End result is local anesthesia
Mechanism of Action
Protein binding
Lipid solubility
Vasodilatation
Vasodilatation
Mode of administration
Tissue pH
Presence of
vasoconstrictor
Concentration of drug
Onset
Inherent pKa
Myelination
Interspersed tissue
Dosage of drug
Ideal Anesthetic
Immediate onset
Reversible
Appropriate duration
No permanent damage
No tissue irritation / pain
Wide therapeutic range
Effective regardless of application
Topical Anesthesia
Intact Skin
Epidermis
Avascular layer measuring
0.12 to 0.7 mm
Barrier to diffusion of
topicals
Dermis
Support structure
Contains blood vessels
and nerve endings
Anesthetic’s targeted site
of action
Agents
Lidocaine Cream
EMLA
Ethyl Chloride
Uses
Intact skin procedures
Venopuncture
Punch biopsies
Lumbar puncture
Lidocaine Cream
30% lidocaine cream
Saturated on gauze pad adherent to an elastic
patch
45 minutes minimum application time
½ hour anesthetic duration = 2 hour
application
Effective and safe, but not practical
EMLA
(Eutectic Mixture of Local
Anesthetics)
2.5% lidocaine and 2.5%
prilocaine
1-hour application time
Maximum dose at 2-3
hours
Depth of anesthesia
correlated to duration of
application
Duration of 1-2 hours after
removal
Hypersensitivity and
systemic toxicity rare
Ethyl Chloride (C2H5CL)
Not an anesthetic, but a
vapocoolant
Immediate anesthesia, but
limited duration
Spray for 3 to 7 seconds
Used for injections and
lancing small abscesses or
boils
Not used for punch
biopsies
Mucous Membranes
Nose, mouth, throat, tracheobronchial tree,
esophagus, and genitourinary tract
Agents
Tetracaine
Lidocaine
Cocaine
Benzocaine
Tetracaine
Effective and potent agent
Long duration of action
Downside = high toxicity
Maximum adult dose of 50mg
Lidocaine
2% solution
Swished inside the mouth then expectorated
5% liquid
Applied with a swab
5% ointment
Applied with a sterile gauze pad
Lidocaine
Indicated for painful, irritated, or inflamed
mucous membranes of the mouth
2% good for aph-thous stomatitis and as
adjunct before infraoral nerve block
5% ointment good for reducing pain during
oral injection
Lidocaine
Precautions
Impaired swallowing
Numbness of the tongue
Expectorate excess to avoid toxicity
Cocaine
Topical preparations available in 4% and
10% solutions and viscous formulations
Safe dose of 200mg (2 to 3 mg/kg)
Apply for 5-6 minutes
Works by vasoconstriction
Coronary vasoconstriction with 2mg/kg
applied to the nasal mucosa
Benzocaine
Available in 14% to 20% liquid, gel, or spray
Used to relieve pain in canker sores, cold
sores, other minor inflammation
Very short duration and more allergenic
Can be used prior to infraoral nerve block
Ophthalmic Anesthetics
Agents
Proparacaine
Tetracaine
Proparacaine
0.5% solution
Indicated for removal of
superficial foreign body
1 to 2 drops before
procedure
Onset within 30 seconds
Duration 15 minutes
Have patient avoid
touching eye
Tetracaine
0.5% solution
Onset, duration, and potency similar to
proparacaine
Burning sensation worse and longer
Lacerations
TAC
TAC (tetracaine-adrenalin-cocaine)
Used to anesthetize lacerations in children
Wounds < 5cm
Vasoconstrictor
More effective on face and scalp
TAC
Advantages
Painless
Hemostasis
No Distortion
Acceptance
Disadvantages
Minimum of 10-20 minute onset
Cost
Federal regulations
Agents and Effectiveness
0.5% tetracaine, 1:2000 epinephrine (adrenalin),
and 11.8% cocaine
Epinephrine 1:2000, cocaine 11.8%
Tetracaine 0.25%, epi 1:4000, cocaine 5.9%
Tetracaine 1.0%, epi 1:4000, cocaine 4%
Lidocaine 4.0%, epi 1:1000, tetracaine 0.5%
Gel by adding 0.15g methylcellulose to 1.5ml of epi
and cocaine solution
Application
Fill wound with TAC solution
After 3 minutes, instill saturated gauze or
cotton into wound
Leave in place 15-20 minutes
SAFE dose maximum
Full strength TAC 0.09 ml/kg
Tetracaine 50mg, cocaine 150-300mg
Adverse Reactions
Can lead to systemic toxicity from mucosal
application
Gel form reduces runoff
Ischemic complications
Precautions
Avoid in:
CAD
Uncontrolled HTN
Seizures
PVD
Risk of Toxicity
Infiltration Anesthesia
Injection of anesthetic agent directly into
tissue
Indications
Excision of skin lesions
Incision of abscess
Suturing of wounds
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages
Quick and safe
Provides hemostasis
Disadvantages
Large dose for small area
Distorts wounds
Choice of Agent
Lidocaine 0.5 to 1.0%
Procaine 0.5% to 1.0%
Bupivacaine 0.25%
Choice of Agent
Maximum Dose
Adult (mg)
Pediatric
(mg/kg)
Onset
(min)
Duration
Concentration
Agent
(%)
Procaine
0.5-1.0
500 (600)
7.0 (9)
2-5
15-45 min
Lidocaine
0.5-1.0
300 (500)
4.5 (7)
2-5
1-2 hr
Bupivacaine
0.25
175 (225)
2.0 (3)
2-5
4-8 hr
Choice of Agent
Prolong duration by adding:
Epinephrine
Sodium bicarbonate
Both
Use bupivicaine
Epinephrine Use
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. Prolongs duration
1. Impairs host defenses--increases infection *
2. Provides hemostasis
2. Delays wound healing *
3. Slows absorption:
Decreases agent toxicity potential
Allows increased dose
3. Do not use for:
Areas supplied by end arteries
Patients"sensitive" to catecholamines
4. Increases level of blockade
4. Toxicity--catecholamine reaction
* Based on laboratory studies.
For example, in patients taking MAO inhibitors.
Injection Technique
Bicarbonate
Reduces pain of injection
Mechanism unclear
1 cc 8.4 % bicarb : 9 cc lidocaine
“Neut” 4.2 % bicarb (1cc:4cc)
Precipitates in bupivicaine
Shelf life : 1 wk (unref), 2 wks (refr)
Bartfield JM, et al: Buffered lidocaine as a local anesthetic: An
investigation of shelf life. Ann Emerg Med 21:24, 1992.
Comparison of 1% Lidocaine (L) and 0.25%
Bupivacaine (B)--Infiltration Anesthesia
Lidocaine
Bupivacaine
Advantage
2-5 min
2-5 min
Equal
Excellent
Excellent
Equal
1-2 hr
4-6 hr
B
No
No
Equal
Administration pain
Less
More
L
Maximum volume --plain lidocaine
Less
More
B
Maximum volume--epinephrine
Less
More
B
Less cardiotoxic;
equal CNS
More cardiotoxic;
equal CNS
L
Onset
Effectiveness (equianesthetic dose)
Duration
Infection potential
Toxic potential
Injection Technique
Lowest concentration effective
Prep wound first if possible
Smallest needle available (27g)
Use wound margin
Subdermal injection
Insert, then inject
Injection
Injection should be subdermal
Bury the hub and inject as you withdraw
Through wound edge
Injection Technique
Warming
No change in efficacy
Less pain of injection
Probably synergistic with buffering
Brogan GX, et al: Comparison of plain, warmed and buffered
lidocaine in wound repair. Ann Emerg Med; Aug. 1995.
Complications
Effects on wounds
Systemic toxic reactions
Catecholamine reaction
Allergic reactions
Effect on Wounds
Wound healing
Wound strength
Avoid in poor healing
wounds
Help prevent keloids
Wound infection
Local injuries
Systemic Toxic Reaction
High Blood Levels
Site and mode of administration
Rate
Dose of Concentration
Addition of epinephrine
Specific drug
Clearance
Maximum safe dose
Inadvertent intravascular injection
Maximum Dosage - Lido
Without epi
4.5 mg/kg
70 kg = 300 mg
30 cc (1 ½ bottles) of 1 %
15 cc (3/4 bottle) of 2 %
With epi
7 mg/kg
70 kg = 500 mg
50 cc (2 ½ bottles) of 1%
25 cc (1 ¼ bottles) of 2%
Lidocaine
Dosage administered Packaging (% = g / dl)
1%
2%
4%
20 cc
20 cc
20 cc
1 g/dl =
1000mg/100cc =
10 mg/cc
2 g/dl =
2000mg/100cc =
20 mg/cc
4 g/dl =
4000mg/100cc =
40 mg/cc
200 mg/bottle
400 mg/bottle
800 mg/bottle
Systemic Toxic Reaction
Host Factors
Hypoxia
Acid-base status
Protein binding
Concomitant drugs
Catecholamine Reaction
Excess levels produce:
Tachycardia
Palpitations
Hypertension
Apprehension
Tremulousness
Diaphoresis
Tachypnea
Pallor
Anginal chest pain
Adverse Effects - Systemic
“But I’m allergic to the
numbing medicine”
Great, now
what?
Adverse Effects - Systemic
Allergic reactions
1 – 2 % of total adverse reactions
Esters
Large majority
PABA
Amides
Rare
methlyparaben
Allergic Reactions
Fisher,et al
Anesthetic allergy clinic
208 patients with “allergy” to local anesthetic over
20 year period
Intradermal testing
4 immed, 4 delayed
39 to “additives”
Fisher MM, Bowie CJ Alleged Allergy to Local Anesthetics Anaesth
Intensive care 1997 Dec;25(6):611-4
Allergic Reactions
Recommendations
1. Define allergy vs. adverse rxn
2. Alternate class of anesthetics
3. Cardiac lidocaine
4. Test dose (0.1 cc SQ)
5. Diphenhydramine
Allergic Reactions
Diphenhydramine
Supplied as 5% solution (50 mg/cc)
Tissue necrosis
Must be diluted in NS
1 cc / 4 cc NS = 50 mg / 5 cc = 1 %
1 cc / 9 cc NS = 50 mg / 10 cc = 0.5%
Allergic Reactions
Diphenhydramine
24 volunteers
DPH 1% as effective as Lido 1%
Injection more painful
Safety profile not well established
Green SM, Rothrock SG, et al: Validation of diphenhydramine as a local
anesthetic. Ann Emerg Med; June, 1994.
Allergic Reactions
Diphenhydramine
98 patients
DPH 0.5 % vs. lidocaine 1 %
No difference in pain of injection or efficacy,
except face
Ernest AA, et al. Lidocaine vs. diphenhydramine for laceration repair .
Ann Emerg Med; Jun, 1994.
Allergic Reactions
Diphenhydramine
Dbl blinded
2 cc of Lido 1 % vs. DPH 1 %
10 adult volunteers - pinprick
Conclusions
No differences to 30 minutes, Lido better after 30 min
Duration Lido (81 min) vs. DPH (42 min)
1/10 developed skin necrosis
Dire DJ. Double blinded comparison of lidocaine vs. diphenhydramine as a local
anesthetic. Ann Emerg Med. 1993 ;22(9): 1419-1423.
Allergic Reactions
Recommendations
6. Normal saline
7. No anesthesia
8. Parenteral agents
9. General anesthesia
10. Nitrous oxide
11. Benzyl alcohol
Points to Remember
Esters and Amines
Factors affecting MOA
Types of anesthetics
How applied
Risks and Benefits
Contraindications
Adverse reactions
Questions?