Transcript Chapter 7 - Essentials of Marketing Research

Research Methods
Jacob Godfrey Agea (PhD)
Ethnobotany & Applied Food Security
Dept. Extension & Innovation Studies, College of Agricultural &
Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala,
Uganda. Mobile: +256 (0) 392945330;
Email: [email protected] / [email protected]
Homepage: http://ageajg.weebly.com/
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Hypotheses
• A hypothesis - a possible solution or answer
derived from a thought process using evidence
provided in the established body of knowledge
in the area of research.
• A research project often tests a hypothesis to
refute or support it.
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Four criteria to be satisfied by a good
hypothesis:
• States an expected relationship among
variables.
• Provides justification for the hypothesis from
literature.
• Is testable under the constraints of the study
• Is clear and brief.
Most hypotheses state the anticipated direction of
the relationship of the variables – revisit your
statistics
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Forms of hypotheses
• Null hypotheses – Proposes that there is no
relationship among the identified variables - if the
study is an experiment, then a statistical test of
significance will measure support for the null
hypothesis. A null hypothesis is non directional
since there is no relationship (Ho)
• Alternative hypotheses - remaining possible
outcomes other than the null hypothesis. Alternative
hypotheses usually have a direction stated in the
relationship of variables (H,).
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Research questions Vs hypotheses
• Common in social survey research.
• Simply a re-sating of the objectives of various aspects
of the research in form of questions.
• Some examples.........
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Literature Review
• Done at an early stage of research after identifying the
topic.
• Learning what others have done in related area & the
knowledge gaps needing further investigation.
• Standing on the shoulders of others (giants).
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Sources of Literature
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Text books; Periodicals
Technical reports; Academic theses
Websites
Published papers (peer reviewed journals) - preferably
better (current) than other literature sources normally
referred to as “grey” literature.
Pay attention on how to gather information from
literature
Take trouble to learn how to quote lit both in text and at
the reference section – examples -7
Survey research
• A method of gathering data (can be qualitative or
quantitative) to describe, compare, or explain
knowledge, attitudes (general dispositions), systems
of beliefs (core beliefs, general policy beliefs,
specific beliefs), preferences (or, more disparagingly,
“opinions”), trust, & behaviours
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Advantages of Undertaking Surveys
• Surveys have a number of advantages in terms of
collecting, analyzing & assessing information from the
sampled population:
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Quickness
Inexpensiveness
Flexibility
Efficiency
Accuracy
Helpful in the decision-making process
• The advantages are only evident when surveys are
properly conducted!
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Weakness of survey research
• Poor design can easily lead to bias
• Weak on validity
• Subject to artificiality.
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Types of Surveys
1) Cross-Sectional Surveys
• Are used to gather information on a population at a
single point in time. An example of a cross sectional
survey would be a questionnaire that collects data on
how parents feel about their adolescent boys.
• A different cross-sectional survey questionnaire
might try to determine the relationship between two
factors, like religiousness of parents and views on
homosexuality.
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2. Longitudinal Surveys
Gathers data over a period of time. The researcher may
then analyze changes in the population and attempt to
describe &/or explain them.
There are three main types of longitudinal surveys:
• trend studies,
• cohort studies, &
• panel studies.
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a) Trend Studies
• Trend studies focus on a particular population,
which is sampled & scrutinized repeatedly.
• While samples are of the same population, they are
typically not composed of the same people.
• Trend studies, since they may be conducted over a
long period of time, do not have to be conducted by
just one researcher or research project.
• A researcher may combine data from several studies
of the same population in order to show a trend.
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b) Cohort Studies
• Cohort studies also focus on a particular population,
sampled and studied more than once. But cohort
studies have a different focus.
• For example, a sample of 2010 BCF graduates of
MAK could be questioned regarding their attitudes
toward the relevance of forestry education in their
life.
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• Five years later, the researcher could question
another sample of 2010 BCF graduates of MAK,
and study any changes in their attitude.
• A cohort study would sample the same class, every
time. If the researcher studied the BCF. class of
2010 five years later, it would be a trend study, not a
cohort study.
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c) Panel Studies
• Panel studies allow the researcher to find out why
changes in the population are occurring, since they
use the same sample of people every time.
• That sample is called a panel. A researcher could,
for example, select a sample of 2010 BCF graduate
students, and ask them questions on their working
experience.
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• Every year thereafter, the researcher would contact
the same people, and ask them similar questions, and
ask them the reasons for any changes in their habits.
• Panel studies, while they can yield extremely
specific and useful explanations, can be difficult to
conduct.
• They tend to be expensive, they take a lot of time,
and they suffer from high attrition rates. Attrition is
what occurs when people drop out of the study.
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Potential Errors in Undertaking Surveys
If we are to ensure reliability, validity &
representativeness of the survey findings, then we need
to guard against all forms of survey errors.
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Random Sampling Error
• A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of
change variation in the elements selected for the
sample (It cannot be eliminated but very large
samples can minimize it >400)
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Systematic Error (bias)
Systematic error results from some imperfect aspect of
the research design or from a mistake in the execution
of the research
Administrative
error
Systematic
error (bias)
Respondent
error
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Respondent Error
• A classification of sample bias resulting from some
respondent action or inaction
– Non-response bias
– Response bias
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Non-response Error
• Non-respondents - people who refuse to cooperate
• Not-at-homes
• Self-selection bias
– Over-represents extreme positions
– Under-represents indifference
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Response Bias
• A bias that occurs when respondents tend to answer
questions with a certain slant that consciously or
unconsciously misrepresents the truth. This includes:
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–
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Acquiescence bias
Extremity bias
Interviewer bias
Auspices bias
Social desirability bias
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Acquiescence Bias
• A category of response bias that results because
some individuals tend to agree with all questions or
to concur with a particular position.
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Extremity Bias
• A category of response bias that results because
response styles vary from person to person; some
individuals tend to use extremes when responding to
questions.
Interviewer Bias
• A response bias that occurs because the presence of
the interviewer influences answers.
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Auspices Bias
• Bias in the responses of subjects caused by the
respondents being influenced by the organization
conducting the study.
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Social Desirability Bias
• Bias in responses caused by
respondents’ desire, either
conscious or unconscious, to
gain prestige or appear in a
different social role.
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Survey Error
Administrative
error
Systematic
error (bias)
Respondent
error
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Administrative Error
• Improper administration of the research task
• Blunders
• Confusion
• Neglect
• Omission
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Types of administrative error:
• Interviewer cheating - filling in fake answers or
falsifying interviewers
• Data processing error - incorrect data entry,
computer programming, or other procedural errors
during the analysis stage.
• Sample selection error -improper sample design or
sampling procedure execution.
• Interviewer error - field mistakes
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Survey Research Tools
• Personal interviews
– Door-to-door
– Focus group interviews
• Telephone interviews
• Self-administered questionnaires
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Guidelines for Survey Interviewing
• Dress in a similar manner to the people who will be
interviewed.
• Study and become familiar with the questionnaire.
• Follow question wording exactly.
• Record responses exactly.
• Probe for responses when necessary.
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Training for Interviewers
• Discussion of general guidelines and procedures.
• Specify how to handle difficult or confusing situations.
• Conduct demonstration interviews.
• Conduct “real” interviews.
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Personal Interviews
A personal interview is a form of direct communication
in which an interviewer asks respondents in a face-to-face
conversational situation. It can be door-to-door or in form
of group interviews/discussions.
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Advantages of Personal Interviews
• Opportunity for Feedback – Interviewer can provide
direct feedback to the respondent, give clarifications &
help alleviate any misconceptions or apprehensions
over confidentiality that the respondent may have in
answering the interviewer’s questions
• Probing Complex Answers – Interviewers can probe
if the respondent’s answer is too brief or unclear. This
gives interviewers some flexibility in dealing with
unstructured questions and is especially suited for
handling complex questions
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• Length of Interview – If the questionnaire is often
very lengthy, the personal interview is the best
technique for getting respondents to cooperate, without
overtaxing their patience.
• Complete Questionnaires – Personal ensures ensure
that the respondent will answer all questions asked,
unlike in telephone interview where the respondent
may hang up or in mail questionnaire where some
questions may go unanswered.
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• Props & Visual Aids – Interviewers have the
opportunity of showing respondents items such as
sample products, graphs ands sketches, which can aid
in their answers
• High Participation – Interviewing respondents
personally can increase the likelihood of their
participation, as many people prefer to communicate
directly verbally & sharing information and insights
with interviewers
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Disadvantages of Personal Interviews
• Cost – Personal interviews are usually more expensive
than mail, telephone or internet surveys.
Factors influencing the cost of the interview include the
respondents’ geographic proximity, the length &
complexity of the questionnaire, & the number of nonrespondents
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• Lack of Anonymity – Respondents are not
anonymous in a personal (face-to-face) interview &
may be reluctant to disclose certain information to the
interviewer.
Hence, considerable must be expended by the
interviewer when dealing with sensitive questions to
avoid bias effects on the respondent’s part.
• Necessity for Callbacks – When a person selected for
interview cannot be reached the first time, a callback
has to be scheduled which result in extra cost and time
spent
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• Dishonesty – Interviewers cheat to make their life
easier & save time and effort.
• Personal Style – The interviewers individual
questioning style, techniques, approach & demeanor
may influence the respondents’ answers.
• Global Considerations – Cultural aspects may
influence peoples’ willingness to participate in an
interview (e.g. repressive Middle Eastern cultures
discourage females from being questioned face-to-face
by male interviewers).
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Telephone Surveys
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• In telephone interviews, respondents are contacted by
telephone in order to collect data for surveys
• Telephone interviewing has been used for decades &,
in some ways, has advantages over other methods of
undertaking surveys
• With improvements in the IT-field, computers can be
used to assist in telephone interviewing, & answers
given by respondents can be entered by interviewers
directly into the computer, saving effort, time & cost
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• Speed – This is a major advantage of telephone
interviewing, enabling data to be collected on very
short notice.
• Cost – Telephone interviews are comparatively
cheaper to conduct than personal interviews. No travel
time and travel cost is involved.
• No Face-to-Face Contact – Bse telephone interviews
lack the direct element of interaction, respondents may
be more willing to provide certain information that
they would be reluctant to disclose in a personal (faceto-face) interview.
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• Cooperation – People may be reluctant to allow
interviewers into their homes, but they may be willing
to cooperate by letting themselves be interviewed over
the telephone.
• Callbacks – Telephone callbacks are easier to perform
than personal interview callbacks.
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Disadvantages of Telephone Interviews
• No Face-to-Face Contact – Interviewer may not be
able to record the respondent’s data fast enough and
the respondent, who cannot see this, may continue to
add data.
Also, due to the visual communication gap, there is a
greater tendency for interviewers to record no-answers
and incomplete answers than in a personal interview.
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• Cooperation – Research shows that response rates in
telephone interviews are declining with the passage of
time & the availability of respondents has also declined
for various reasons.
Also, reaching executives in workplaces can be very
difficult due to tight schedules and the work load.
• Lack of Visual Mediums – Visual aids cannot be used
by interviewers in telephone interviews, hence, surveys
which need visual aids to help respondents cannot be
undertaken with this survey method.
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• Limited Duration – Length of interview time in a
telephone interview is limited. Too long interview times
may result in exasperated respondents hanging up the
telephone or refusing to answer questions.
• Representative Samples – Using the telephone
directory as the basis for sampling can be problematic
in the sense that many persons are unlisted or do not
have telephones, but whose opinions are nevertheless
important.
• Global Considerations – In many countries, people are
reluctant to divulge information over the telephone.
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Self-Administered Questionnaires
SELF-ADMINISTERED
QUESTIONNAIRES
PAPER
QUESTIONNAIRES
MAIL
IN-PERSON
DROP-OFF
INSERTS
ELECTRONIC
QUESTIONNAIRES
FAX
E-MAIL
INTERNET
WEB SITE
KIOSK
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• Self-administered questionnaires are those questionnaires
that are filled in by the respondent independently, i.e.
without the direct interaction with an interviewer
• There are many ways for distributing self-administered
questionnaires, for example, by mailing or faxing
questionnaires to pple, by posting them on websites, by
distributing them at certain locations & places, by
including them as inserts in magazines & so forth
• Researchers who have to interpret self-administered
questionnaires have to be skillful at trying to understand
what is being conveyed to them in written or electronic rather than verbal - form
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Mail Questionnaire Surveys
A mail questionnaire survey is a
self-administered questionnaire
dispatched to respondents thru′
the mail.
Mail questionnaires surveys
have several advantages &
disadvantages:
Advantages
Cost – They are comparatively cheaper to conduct
than personal interviews & telephone surveys, but can
still be quite costly bse of the costs of printing &
mailing questionnaires, & possible follow-up actions
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Disadvantages
• Interviewer Absence – Respondents may attach a different
subjective meaning to questionnaires, which are outside the
control or influence of the interviewer who cannot be
consulted or queried. Respondents may thus misunderstand
certain questions or aspects of the survey
• Standardized Questions – Misunderstanding of questions on
the part of the respondent can create problems since no
interviewer is present to answer queries or clarify
misunderstandings or overcome comprehension problems.
• Wrong Respondents – Questionnaires may not be answered
by target respondents, instead, the task of filling up the
questionnaire is delegated to other pple.
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• Time Factor – Mail questionnaire surveys may be
inappropriate if time is very limited & information is needed
quickly. Usually, it can take a few weeks before completed
mail questionnaires are received, follow-up action initiated &
the information analyzed
• Length of Mail Questionnaire – If the questionnaire is quite
long (usually > 6 pages), respondents must give considerable
effort & may not be willing to invest the effort. Sometimes,
this reluctance can be overcome by using incentives.
• Social Factors – The response rate is dependent on socio-econ.
factors such as education level of respondent & his/her econ.
status. More educated & well-to-do respondents, & those with
more interest in the subject of the survey, tend to reply more to
questionnaires than respondents with less education.
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• Geographic Flexibility – Mail questionnaires can be
distributed over a geographically wide area simultaneously &
quickly, including to respondents who may live in remote or
not so cheaply accessible areas, & respondents who may not
be easy to reach.
• Responent Convenience – Questionnaires can be filled out
at the respondents convenience. The respondent has time to
think about his or her answer which may provide more
accurate data & information to the interviewer than would be
possible in the case of personal interviews or telephone
surveys.
• Interviewer Absence – Respondents may be willing to
disclose sensitive information in a mail survey which they
may not be willing to do if being interviewed personally.
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How to Increase Response Rates for Mail Surveys
• Write a cover letter
• Money helps
- As a token of appreciation
• Advanced notification
• Stimulate respondents’ interest with interesting questions
• Follow Up
- Keying questionnaires with codes
• Sponsorship by a well-known & prestigious institution
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Fax Questionnaire Surveys
A survey in which questionnaires are distributed and/or
returned through fax machines
Advantages
• Reduction in printing & postage costs for the researcher
and faster distribution and return than through mail
surveys
Disadvantages
• Not all respondents have fax machines & some
respondents may not want to return the fax if transmission
cost is high due to geographical distance. Other
disadvantages are the as with mail questionnaire surveys.
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E-Mail Questionnaire Surveys
A survey in which questionnaires are distributed and
returned via email. Surveys conducted with email are
especially suited for time-sensitive issues
Advantages- Speed of distribution, lower distribution &
processing costs, faster turnaround time, more flexibility.
Disadvantages- Not all respondents have emails. There may
be concerns on the part of respondents about confidentiality;
the format of emails can differ considerably depending on the
prog. used & the settings of respondents computer (spam
mgt). Moreover, respondents have different skill levels in
handling emails, especially complicated survey-related ones.
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Internet questionnaire Surveys
• A self-administered questionnaire posted on a Website.
Respondents provide answers to questions displayed
online by highlighting a phrase, clicking an icon, or
keying in an answer.
Advantages
• access to a large (possibly global) audience on 24-hour
basis
• Real-time data entry & analysis
• More accurate data capture if properly programmed
• obtaining confidential, anonymous answers quickly &
cost-effectively
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• No costs for paper, postage, data entry & administrative
costs.
• Large samples can be larger than with interviews &
other types of self-administered questionnaires.
• Questionnaires can include use of appealing multimedia
aids including photographs or drawings of prototypes.
• Callbacks are automated (if response incomplete or not
given).
• email can be used to invite respondents to visit the
website, for e.g. to participate in panels.
• Flexible & personalized questioning of respondents.
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Disadvantages- internet questionnaire surveys
• Many people in the general population do not have access
to the internet.
• Different levels of technology may be prevalent (broadband
or dial-up connectivity) which may result in some users not
being able to access information as quick as others.
• Hardware deficiencies &/or software incompatability
• Different computer skill levels.
• Physical incentives (e.g. inclusion of money) is not
possible, only the promise of a future reward.
• Research on internet surveys is small & so are ideas for
improving response rates.
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You can read about other Types of
self-administered questionnaire surveys.
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Questionnaire Design
Before starting to design a questionnaire, write a study
protocol!
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Basic Rules
• On first page
– Return address
– Study title
• On all pages
– Identifier
– Page numbers
• Numbered questions
• Instructions
(in bold or italic)
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Structure of a questionnaire
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introductory cover letter
Identification
Instructions on how to answer
Questions
Conclusion
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1. Example of an introductory cover letter
Good morning,
My name is ..... , I work for ……..
You may have been already informed that a survey on risk
factors for being stung by a jellyfish will be done this week
in Kabaka’s Lake, Mengo. This study has been approved by
the national ethical committee. Only anonymous data will be
analysed. You have been randomly selected to participate in
this study. Your participation is voluntary. The interview is
about 15 minutes long.
I will start with the first question .....
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2. Identification
–
Each questionnaire/interviewed person must be
identified
Example :
I_I I_I_I I_I_I
interviewer N° district N° person N°
–
Demographic data : age, sex …
–
Identifiers kept separately from names (anonymous)
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3. Instructions on how to answer
• Give clear instructions about how to answer the questions
– Use different fonts (e.g. italics)
• Give instruction which questions can be skipped
& where to jump to.
Example: I will ask you a few questions about your
relationship with jellyfish. You will answer by yes or no
If no, go to question 27
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4. Questions
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Content
Order
Format
Problems & pitfalls
Coding
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A. Content of questions
 Clear focus on research questions
• avoid sidetracking
• avoid unnecessary information
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B. Question order
 Decide on the order of items/questions
• easy

difficult
• general

particular
• factual

abstract
 Group questions by topic
 Be aware of ordering effects
 Don’t put the most important items last
 Where to place sensitive questions?
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C. Format of questions
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Read about advantages & disadvantages of
closed & open-ended question formats.
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Dichotomous Questions
• When a question has two possible responses, we
consider it dichotomous. Surveys often use
dichotomous questions that ask for a Yes/No,
True/False or Agree/Disagree response.
• E.g.
Do you believe that death penalty is ever justified?
 Yes
 No
Please indicate your sex
 Male
 Female
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Questions Based on Level of Measurement
Rank order question
• You might ask respondents to rank order their preferences for
presidential candidates using an ordinal question: Rank the
candidates in order of your preference from best to worst.
▬
▬
▬
▬
▬
▬
▬
▬
Besigye Kizza Kifefe – Ipc & Forum For Democratic Change
Abed Bwanika – People’s Development Party
Beti Olive Namisango Kamya – Uganda Federal Alliance
Samuel Lubega Walter Mukaaku – Independent
Mao Norbert – Democratic Party
Yoweri Kaguta Museveni – National Resistance Movement
Olara Otunnu – Uganda People’s Congress
Bidandi-Ssali Jaberi – People’s Progressive Party
• We want the respondent to put a 1, 2, 3, 4 up to 8 next to the
candidate, where 1 is the respondent's first choice.
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Interval level questions - Likert response scale
• We can also construct survey questions that attempt to
measure on an interval level. One of the most common
of these types is the traditional 1-to-5 rating (or 1-to-7, or
1-to-9, etc.). This is sometimes referred to as a Likert
response scale.
• Here, we see how we might ask an opinion question on a
1-to-5 bipolar scale (it's called bipolar because there is a
neutral point & the two ends of the scale are at opposite
positions of the opinion).
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18. Death penalty is justifiable under some circumstances.
1 I strongly disagree
2 I disagree
3 I neither agree or disagree
4 I agree
5 I strongly agree
19. Capital punishment in the form castration is the best
way to deal with male rapist
1 I strongly disagree
2 I disagree
3 I neither agree or disagree
4 I agree
5 I strongly agree
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Interval level questions - semantic differential scale
• Another interval question uses an approach call the
semantic differential.
• Here, an object is assessed by the respondent on a set of
bipolar adjective pairs (using 5-point rating scale).
• E.g.
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Example of semantic differential scaling
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Interval level questions - Cumulative or Guttman
scale
Finally, we can also get at interval measures by using
what is called a cumulative or Guttman scale.
Here, the respondent checks each item with which they
agree.
The items themselves are constructed so that they are
cumulative -- if you agree to one, you probably agree to
all of the ones above it in the list.
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Example of Cumulative or Guttman scale
Please tick each statement that you agree with:
 Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your
country?
 Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your
community?
 Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your
neighbourhood?
 Would you be willing to have an immigrant live next
door to you?
 Would you let your child marry and immigrant?
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Filter or Contingency Questions
• Sometimes you have to ask the respondent one question
in order to determine if they are qualified or
experienced enough to answer a subsequent one.
• This requires using a filter or contingency question.
• For instance, you may want to ask one question if the
respondent has ever smoked marijuana & a different
question if they have not.
• In this case, you would have to construct a filter
question to determine whether they've ever smoked
marijuana. E.g.
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Example of Filter or Contingency Questions
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• The example above shows how you can make effective
use of an arrow and box to help direct the respondent to
the correct subsequent question.
• If you can't fit the response to a filter on a single page,
it's probably best to be able to say something like "If
YES, please turn to page 4" rather that "If YES, please
go to Question 38" …..
• Because the respondent will generally have an easier
time finding a page than a specific question.
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D. Problems & pitfalls
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And finally,
• Don’t forget to thank the interviewed persons.
• Tell them when the results will be available
& where.
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