Transcript The Cardiovascular Examination
Valvular Heart Disease and the Cardiac Exam
2009
Overview
Clinical syndromes Overview of cardiac murmurs and maneuvers Left sided valvular lesions – Aortic stenosis and sclerosis – Mitral stenosis Rheumatic fever prophylaxis – Acute and chronic aortic regurgitation – Acute and chronic mitral regurgitation Right sided valvular lesions – Tricuspid valve disease Prosthetic valves Endocarditis prophylaxis Questions
General Appearance
Marfan Syndrome
– Tall, long extremities – Associated with: aortic root dilitation, MV prolapse
Acromegaly
– Large stature, coarse facial features, “spade” hands – Associated with: hypertrophy Cardiac
Turner Syndrome
– Web neck, hypertelorism, short stature – Associated with: coarctation, pulmonary stenosis Aortic
Pickwickian Syndrome
– Severe obesity, somnolence – Associated with: Pulmonary hypertension
Fredreich ataxia
– Lurching gait, hammertoe, pes cavus – – Associated with: cardiomyopathy Associated with: (rare) hypertrophic
Duchenne type muscular dystrophy
– Pseudohypertrophy of the calves – Cardiomyopathy
Ankylosing spondylitis
– Straight back syndrome, stiff (“poker”) spine AI, CHB
Lentigines (LEOPARD syndrome)
– Brown skin macules that do not increase with sunlight – Associated with: HOCM, PS
“Spade” hands in acromegaly
General Appearance- 2
Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler Weber-Rendu)
– Small capillary hemangiomas on the face or mouth – Associated with: Pulmonary arteriovenous fistula
Lupus
– Butterfly rash on face, Raynaud phenomenon- hands, Livedo reticularis – Associated with: endocarditis, Myocarditis, Pericarditis Verrucous
Pheochromocytoma
– Pale diaphoretic skin, neurofibromatosis- café-au-lait spots – Associated with: Catecholamine-induced secondary dilated CM
Sarcoidosis
– Cutaneous nodules, erythema nodosum – Associated with: Secondary cardiomyopathy, heart block
Tuberous Sclerosis
– Angiofibromas (face; adenoma sebaceum) –
Myxedema
– Coarse, dry skin, thinning of lateral eyebrows, hoarseness of voice – Associated with: Rhabdomyoma Associated with: Pericardial effusion, LV dysfunction
Grading the Intensity of Cardiac Murmurs
Grade 1
– Murmur heard with stethoscope, but not at first
Grade 2
– Faint murmur heard with stethoscope on chest wall
Grade 3
– Murmur hears with stethoscope on chest wall, louder than grade 2 but without a thrill
Grade 4
– Murmur associated with a thrill
Grade 5
– Murmur heard with just the rim held against the chest
Grade 6
– Murmur heard with the stethoscope held away and in from the chest wall
Cardiac Murmurs
Most mid systolic murmurs of grade 2/6 intensity or less are benign – Associated with physiologic increases in blood velocity: Pregnancy Elderly In contrast, the following murmurs are usually pathologic: – Systolic murmurs grade 3/6 or greater in intensity – Continuous murmurs – Any diastolic murmur
Maneuver
Normal respiration Passive leg elevation Stand to squat Squat to stand Valsalva Isometric handgrip exercise Inhaled amyl nitrate
Hemodynamic Effect
Transient ↑ in venous filling during inspiration ↑ ↑ venous return (transient in LV size and preload) ↑ ↑ venous return (transient in LV size and preload)
Murmur Effect
↑ right-sided murmurs ↑ right-sided murmurs, ↓murmur of HOCM and MVP ↑ right-sided murmurs, ↓murmur of HOCM and MVP ↓ venous return (transient ↓ in LV size and preload) ↓ venous return (transient ↓ in LV size, preload, and relative systemic hypotension) ↑ afterload ↓ afterload ↑ murmur of HOCM, moves midsystolic click of MVP closer to S1 and ↑ MVP murmur, ↓ AS murmur ↑ murmur of HOCM, moves midsystolic click of MVP closer to S1, and ↓ murmur of MVP ↑ murmur of MR and VSD, ↓the murmur of HOCM, ↓AS murmur ↓ murmur of MR and VSD, no change in AS murmur
Diagnostic Testing
ECHOCARDIOGRAM
Exercise testing – To assess the clinical severity of valvular heart disease Those with inconsistent resting hemodynamics Equivocal history of symptoms – Exercise testing in AS patients Should be ended promptly if: – Cardiac symptoms provoked – Decrease or minimal increase (<20 mmHg) in blood pressure Prior history of angina, congestive heart failure, or exertional syncope absolute contraindications to exercise testing Cardiac catheterization – Usually not needed for primary evaluation
Aortic Stenosis
Most common cause is calcific degeneration – Active disease process with risk factors of male sex, smoking, HTN, DM, older age, hypercholesterolemia 2% of the general population have bicuspid aortic valves – Symptomatic or severe AS occurs earlier (age 40-60 years) AS less commonly from rheumatic heart disease valvulitis – Invariably MV involved first – Associated AV involvement in <1/2 patients AV sclerosis – Valve thickening without obstruction – Present in >20% of people >65 years – Associated with 50% increased risk of MI and CV death
Progression of Aortic Sclerosis
Hemodynamic progression usually slow – Average rate of increase in aortic jet velocity of 0.3 m/s per year – Increase in mean transaortic gradient of 7 mmHg – Decrease in AVA of 0.1 cm 2 per year Severe AS – Aortic jet velocity > 4 m/s – Mean transvalvular pressure gradient > 50 mmHg – AVA < 1.0 cm2
Pathophysiology of Aortic Stenosis
Obstruction of LV outflow increases intracavitary systolic pressures and leads to LV pressure overload Initial compensatory mechanism is myocardial hypertrophy with preservation of systolic function Diastolic function impaired as a consequence of increased wall thickness and abnormal myocardial relaxation Increased wall stress and afterload causes eventual decrease in ejection fraction
Pseudostenosis
Occurs in patients with impaired systolic function and aortic stenosis – Unable to generate transvalvular gradient Careful diagnostic testing with dobutamine infusion protocols can aid in differentiating between true AS and pseudostenosis If the calculated AVA increases with augmentation of cardiac output, then pseudostenosis present If AVA does not increase with dobutamine, then obstruction fixed and true AS present
Clinical Presentation of Aortic Stenosis
Cardinal symptoms: – Angina – CHF Occurs in >50% of patients, not sensitive due to prevalence of CAD – Syncope Sudden cardiac death rare, <1% per year In earlier stages, AS presentation more subtle – Dyspnea – Decreased exercise tolerance Rarely, AS diagnosed in the setting of GI bleeding – Heyde’s syndrome Bleeding caused by AVM Concurrent AS occurs at prevalence rate of 15-25% Associated with an acquired von Willebrand syndrome due to disruption of vW multimers through a diseased AV
Management of Aortic Stenosis
Prognosis in asymptomatic disease excellent Conservative approach with monitoring for symptoms recommended When severe stenosis present – 38% of asymptomatic patients develop symptoms within 2 years – 79% are symptomatic within 3 years Once symptoms occur, AVR needed LV dysfunction and severe AS have increased perioperative mortality with AVR – But outcomes still favorable with surgery Nitroprusside may transiently improve cardiac function as a bridge to valve replacement – Does not supplant AVR in symptomatic patients
Bonow et al. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47: 2141-51
Aortic Valve Replacement
Prophylatic AVR in asymptomatic patients not routinely performed due to surgical risks – Thromboembolism, bleeding associated with anticoagulation, prosthetic valve dysfunction, and endocarditis – Occurs at a rate of 2-3% annually – Only should be considered: If other cardiac surgery (such as CABG) planned Severe LVH or systolic dysfunction Women contemplating pregnancy Patients remote from health care Surgical valve replacement with operative morbidity and mortality of 10% Percutaneous balloon aortic valvotomy rarely used
Mitral Stenosis
Usually associated with history of rheumatic fever >40% of cases of RHD result in mitral stenosis
– Women affected more than men (2:1)
Presentation 20-40 years after the initial episode of rheumatic fever
– If infected at a young age, latent period is a few years
Clinical Presentation of Mitral Stenosis
Significant MS leads to ↑ LA pressure and pulm HTN Symptoms include dyspnea with ↑ cardiac demand – Exercise – Pregnancy Survival excellent with asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic patients – >80% survival at 10 years Survival in symptomatic patients much worse – 10 year survival drops to 15% or lower (if pulm HTN present) Findings consistent with severe MS: – Transvalvular diastolic pressure gradient >10 mmHg – MVA <1.0 cm2 – Severe pulmonary hypertension (>60 mmHg)
Management of Mitral Stenosis
Atrial fibrillation – Prevalence >30% in symptomatic patients and associated with poorer long term outcome – Warfarin indicated: In patients with AF and MS Patients without history of AF but with MS and embolic CVA – In patients with prior history of AF who have mitral valve surgery, decreased postoperative AF observed if MAZE performed concominantly
Mitral Valve Repair
Percutaneous valvotomy – Therapeutic intervention of choice if: LAA thrombus excluded MR less than moderate Valvular characteristics favorable – Pliable leaflets, minimal commisural fusion, minimal valvular or subvalvular calcification – Pulmonary HTN not contraindication to valvotomy – Major complications include: severe MR (1-8%), systemic embolization (1-3%), and tamponade (1 2%) Periprocedural mortality- 1% Surgical commissurotomy or MVR can be performed in unfavorable anatomy
Bonow et al. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47: 2141-51
Rheumatic Fever Prophylaxis
Primary prophylaxis – If living in an endemic area, with pharyngitis and a +test for group A strep or positive throat culture – Given once, may be repeated as needed: PCN G 1.2 million U IM or PCN V 500 mg TID x 10d Azithromycin 500 mg on day 1, 250 mg daily for 4d Secondary prophylaxis – PCN G 1.2 million units IM every 4 weeks or PCN V 250 mg PO BID or erythromycin 250 mg BID RHD without carditis- At least 5 years or until >21 y of age RHD with carditis, no valvular HD- At least 10 y or well into adulthood RHD with carditis and valvular HD- At least 10 years from last episode or until patient is older than 40 years
Acute Aortic Regurgitation
Causes of acute aortic regurgitation: – Aortic dissection – Valve distruction from endocarditis – Traumatic rupture Classic physical exam findings may be absent in the acute presentation – Diastolic murmur may not be present due to sudden increase of LVEDP TTE, along with TEE, cath, CT or MRI may be used for diagnosis Surgical AV repair or replacement should be performed emergently Afterload reducing medications and inotropes may help to acutely stabilize the patient IABP contraindicated
Acute Mitral Regurgitation
Most often occurs in: – Chordae tendineae rupture due to myxomatous valve disease or endocarditis – Myocardial infarction with papillary muscle dysfunction or rupture Symptoms almost always occur – Dyspnea and pulmonary edema Systolic function may occur normal or hyperdynamic IABP or afterload reducing drugs to temporize Surgical intervention for treatment
Chronic Valvular Regurgitation
Cardiac chamber size and function have time to compensate for dysfunction – May allow patients to remain asymptomatic for a long time Both preload and afterload increases Once increase in cardiac output insufficient→ systolic function declines → pulmonary HTN may develop and symptoms develop LV enlargement and progressive systolic dysfunction are associated with significant morbidity and mortality Serial echocardiography and evaluation by a cardiologist is indicated
Chronic Aortic Regurgitation
Occurs most often in bicuspid AV Other causes include ascending aortic aneurysm and Marfan’s Disease Risk factors for poorer outcome: – Age – Cardiac symptoms – Atrial fibrillation – LV enlargement – Lower LVEF Asymptomatic patients with normal LV size and function do not require prophylatic surgery Surgery should be considered if: – LVESD > 55 mm – Ejection fraction <60% – Symptoms develop Oral afterload reduction (nifedipine or ACE-I) may slow rate of LV dilation
Bonow et al. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47: 2141-51
Chronic Mitral Regurgitation
Often caused by myxomatous disease or MVP – Myxomatous mitral valve disease with progressive MR associated with poor long term outcome Higher risk of arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death – Mitral valve prolapse occurs in ~2% of the general population Consists of the buckling of the mid portion of the valve leaflets into the LA Usually asymptomatic, but may be associated with palpitations or chest discomfort Prognosis usually benign Antibiotic prophylaxis now not indicated
Chronic Mitral Regurgitation
Other causes include secondary or acquired leaflet dysfunction – Endocarditis – Rheumatic heart disease – Annular tethering from LV dilation – Tethering of the chordal apparatus from ischemic heart disease – Rare cause: Fenfluramine and phentermine, also associated with AI Compensatory increase in LV chamber size initially allows for increase in total stroke volume and restoration or total forward cardiac output
Treatment of Chronic Mitral Regurgitation
Mitral valve repair preferred over mitral valve replacement – Avoids risk of anticoagulation – Preservation of subvalvular apparatus Better postoperative LV function and long term survival When MR occurs in volume overloaded states, afterload reduction can be beneficial – Dilated CM – CAD Revascularization may improve dysfunction of the papillary muscle Biventricular pacing may improve LV geometry
Timing of Intervention for Left-Sided Valvular Conditions
Aortic Stenosis Intervention:
AVR
IF:
Patient is symptomatic (NYHA class II or greater, angina due to AS, or syncope)
OR
Patient has symptomatic severe AS and needs other cardiothoracic surgery (i.e. CABG)
OTHERWISE
Depending on the severity of AS, at least annual clinical evaluation with TTE to monitor for symptom onset
Mitral Stenosis Intervention:
Percutaneous valvotomy if anatomy amenable and IF: Patient has moderate or more severe MS (MVA < 1.5 cm 2 ) OR Pulmonary hypertrension at rest (PAP > 60 mmHg) OR Abnormal hemodynamic response to exercise: PAP > 60 mmHg Mean gradient > 15 mmHg OTHERWISE Clinical evaluation at least annually, depending on the severity of the mitral stenosis Chronic Severe AR Intervention: Surgical AVR with aortic root replacement if needed IF: Patient is symptomatic (NYHA class II or greater) OR EF <60% OR ESD > 55 mm OR Abnormal hemodynamic response to exercise PAP increase by 25 mmHg OTHERWISE Repeat TTE at least yearly, repeat clinical evaluation at least biannually depending on the severity of the LV dilitiation Chronic Severe MR Intervention: Surgical mitral valve repair if anatomy amenable. Otherwise, MVR IF: Patient is symptomatic (NYHA class II or greater) OR EF <60% OR ESD > 45 mm OR Pulmonary hypertension or atrial fibrillation OTHERWISE Repeat TTE yearly, repeat clinical evaluation biannually Tricuspid stenosis is rare – Associated with rheumatic heart disease TR usually occurs secondary to: – Pulmonary hypertension – RV chamber enlargement with annular dilatation – Endocarditis (associated with IV drug use) – Injury following pacer lead placement Other secondary causes: carcinoid, radiation therapy, anorectic drug use, and trauma Primary causes: Marfan’s syndrome and congenital disorders such as Ebstein’s anomaly and AV canal malformation Echo is diagnostic in most cases Severe tricuspid regurgitation is difficult to treat and carries a poor overall clinical outcome Symptoms are manifestations of systemic venous congestion – Ascites – Pedal edema Surgical intervention usually considered if other cardiac surgery planned Surgical options include valvular annuloplasty or replacement – If replacement planned, bioprosthetic valve preferred Three types: – Ball-cage valve – Single tilting disk valve – Bileaflet valve Durable but require life long anticoagulation For operative procedures, warfarin typically is discontinued for 48-72 hours and restarted postop as soon as possible, except for: – Mechanical mitral prosthesis – Atrial fibrillation – Prior thromboembolic events Ball-cage valve Bileaflet valve Single tilting disk valve Biological Valves – Composed of autologous or xenograft biological material mounted on stents and a sewing ring – Warfarin therapy not required due to lower thromboembolic potential – Valve durability less when compared to mechanical valves – Newer stentless valves with increased longevity Bonow et al. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47: 2141-51 Common complications include: – Structural valve deterioration – Valve thrombosis – Embolism – Bleeding – Endocarditis Endocarditis prophylaxis required for patients with all types of prosthetic valves Suspect valve dehiscence or dysfunction in: – Acute CHF in the immediate postop period – New cardiac symptoms – Embolic phenomena – Hemolytic anemia – New murmurs TEE is the diagnostic procedure of choice Postop TTE should be done 2-3 months after surgery Incidence with mechanical prosthesis of 2-4 % per year Suspect in patients with new murmur, change in cardiopulmonary symptoms, or an embolic event Diagnosis based on clinical presentation, TTE/TEE, and fluroscopy In small thrombus, treatment with heparin may be adequate Optimal treatment for left sided thrombosis is emergency surgery Consider thrombolytic therapy for right sided thrombosis or if surgery cannot be performed with left sided disease 2007 AHA Prevention of Infective Endocarditis GuidelinesTricuspid Valve Disease
Tricuspid Regurgitation
Prosthetic Valves- Mechanical
Prosthetic Valves- Biological
Anticoagulation Guidelines for Mechanical Valves
Prosthetic Valve Complications
Valve Thrombosis
Endocarditis Prophylaxis